REBUS and the anarchic brain: Toward a unified model of the brain action of psychedelics

Carhart-Harris, R.L.; Friston, K.J.

doi:10.1124/pr.118.017160

Cited by 1,180Psychedelics and Drug StudiesParanormal Experiences and BeliefsEmbodied and Extended Cognition

REBUS and the anarchic brain: Toward a unified model of the brain action of psychedelics

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Carhart-Harris, R.L., Friston, K.J.·2019·Pharmacological Reviews

DOI 10.1124/pr.118.017160PMC PMC6588209

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Abstract

This paper formulates the action of psychedelics by integrating the free-energy principle and entropic brain hypothesis. We call this formulation relaxed beliefs under psychedelics (REBUS) and the anarchic brain, founded on the principle that—via their entropic effect on spontaneous cortical activity—psychedelics work to relax the precision of high-level priors or beliefs, thereby liberating bottom-up information flow, particularly via intrinsic sources such as the limbic system. We assemble evidence for this model and show how it can explain a broad range of phenomena associated with the psychedelic experience. With regard to their potential therapeutic use, we propose that psychedelics work to relax the precision weighting of pathologically overweighted priors underpinning various expressions of mental illness. We propose that this process entails an increased sensitization of high-level priors to bottom-up signaling (stemming from intrinsic sources), and that this heightened sensitivity enables the potential revision and deweighting of overweighted priors. We end by discussing further implications of the model, such as that psychedelics can bring about the revision of other heavily weighted high-level priors, not directly related to mental health, such as those underlying partisan and/or overly-confident political, religious, and/or philosophical perspectives. Significance Statement Psychedelics are capturing interest, with efforts underway to bring psilocybin therapy to marketing authorisation and legal access within a decade, spearheaded by the findings of a series of phase 2 trials. In this climate, a compelling unified model of how psychedelics alter brain function to alter consciousness would have appeal. Towards this end, we have sought to integrate a leading model of global brain function, hierarchical predictive coding, with an often-cited model of the acute action of psychedelics, the entropic brain hypothesis. The resulting synthesis states that psychedelics work to relax high-level priors, sensitising them to liberated bottom-up information flow, which, with the right intention, care provision and context, can help guide and cultivate the revision of entrenched pathological priors.

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Acute psychedelic treatment is thought to cause inhibition of top-down regulation of the brain by higher-order cortical regions, such as PFC and PPC, resulting in prediction errors and enormous increases in updates in prior beliefs.
“Another model of psychedelic actions on brain-wide circuits is the”
From Psychedelics and Neural Plasticity: Therapeutic Implications (2022) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris and Friston, 2019
The Introduction and REBUS Model propose that psychedelics relax high-level priors, weakening top-down suppression so ascending prediction errors can influence and revise beliefs. The passages support that mechanism, but do not identify PFC and PPC as the regions responsible or establish an enormous increase in belief updates. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Carhart-Harris and Friston distinguish between complete ego-dissolution-a state of complete surrender, associated bliss, and union with all things-and incomplete ego-dissolution-a state characterized by intense fear, anxiety and distress.
“Carhart-Harris and Friston (2020) distinguish between ‘complete ego-dissolution’—a state of ‘complete surrender, associated bliss, and union with all things’ (Carhart-Harris and Friston 2019, 321); and ‘incomplete’ ego-dissolution—a state characterized by intense fear, anxiety and distress.”
From Consciousness in active inference: Deep self-models, other minds, and the challenge of psychedelic-induced ego-dissolution (2021) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris and Friston 2019
In II.H, the paper says that ego dissolution, when surrendered to, includes a unitive experience—a sense of union and interconnectedness. The Introduction also describes anxiety and uncertainty as possible psychedelic experiences. Our copy does not distinguish these as ‘complete’ and ‘incomplete’ ego-dissolution, characterize the latter by intense fear and distress, or contain the quoted wording about bliss. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The REBUS model suggests psychedelics "relax" high-level cortical cognitive structures, or "priors," reducing the precision of these priors and allowing bottom-up subcortical sensory information, along with dissociated memories, emotions, and thoughts, to surface.
“It suggests that psychedelics “relax” high-level cortical cognitive structures, or “priors” - deep-seated beliefs and assumptions that shape how individuals perceive and interpret the world.”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [101]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The altered state of consciousness induced by psychedelics is characterized by high sensitivity to the immediate and previous context, which can help actualize the person's belief system with bottom-up information.
“The altered state of consciousness induced by psychedelics is characterized by high sensitivity to the immediate and previous context, which can help actualize of the person’s belief system with bottom-up information (56).”
From Ayahuasca-assisted meaning reconstruction therapy for grief: a non-randomized clinical trial protocol (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
The Introduction and section II.C describe heightened sensitivity to context under psychedelics, and section II.F proposes that bottom-up information can prompt revision of high-level beliefs. These passages support the central paraphrase, but they do not specifically distinguish sensitivity to immediate context from sensitivity to previous context. The belief-revision mechanism is also presented as a proposal, not an established effect. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The ayahuasca experience could bring new information to the foreground to enrich the therapeutic process, providing an opportunity to transform maladaptive narratives about oneself, other people, or the world.
“The ayahuasca experience, therefore, could bring new information to the foreground to enrich the therapeutic process, providing an opportunity to transform maladaptive narratives about oneself, other people (including the deceased) or the world (56, 57).”
From Ayahuasca-assisted meaning reconstruction therapy for grief: a non-randomized clinical trial protocol (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
The Introduction says psychedelics can allow previously suppressed information into conscious experience, and the REBUS Model’s Summary proposes that, with good contextual support, this may help revise pathologic beliefs in therapy. That supports the proposed mechanism, but the paper describes psychedelics generally rather than establishing this process specifically for ayahuasca or for narratives involving deceased people. The indexed passages provide section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Increased long-ranging cortical connexions and harmony between mutually exclusive brain networks may underlie the beneficial effects elicited by mindfulness meditation and psychedelic-assisted therapy, in isolation as well as in combination.
“Thus, increased long-ranging cortical connexions and harmony between mutually exclusive brain networks may underlie the beneficial effects elicited by mindfulness meditation and psychedelic-assisted therapy, in isolation as well as in combination (102).”
From Examining the Potential Synergistic Effects Between Mindfulness Training and Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as [102]
Section II.E reports reduced anticorrelation between the default mode network and other networks in both meditative and psychedelic states. The Introduction reports altered connectivity under psychedelics, and section II.I speculates that long-range correlations and brain harmony may relate to psychedelic therapy. The paper does not establish that these changes underlie beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation or of meditation and psychedelic-assisted therapy in combination; no page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Carhart-Harris and Friston's (2019) relaxed beliefs under psychedelics model proposes that psychedelics precipitate a freer and less constrained state of consciousness.
“This notion is supported by Carhart-Harris and Friston’s (2019) relaxed beliefs under psychedelics model, which proposes that psychedelics precipitate a freer and less constrained states of consciousness.”
From Prospective examination of the therapeutic role of psychological flexibility and cognitive reappraisal in the ceremonial use of ayahuasca (2022) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris and Friston, 2019
REBUS model states psychedelics serve to relax prior beliefs.
“Specifically, relaxed beliefs under psychedelics (the REBUS model) [115] states that psychedelics serve to relax prior beliefs.”
From Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities (2023) · cites this paper as [115]
Tightening of beliefs functions as a defensive response to intolerable stress and uncertainty and may affect mental health in a transdiagnostic manner.
“Such “tightening of beliefs” functions as a defensive response to intolerable stress and uncertainty and may affect mental health in a transdiagnostic manner [160].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [160]

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The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas
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Mapping the self in the brain's default mode network
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Listening to Prozac
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5-Hydroxytryptamine 2A serotonin receptors in the primate cerebral cortex: Possible site of action of hallucinogenic and antipsychotic drugs in pyramidal cell apical dendrites
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Computational psychiatry: the brain as a phantastic organ
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The entropic brain - revisited
Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.03.010 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels
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Criticality in the brain: A synthesis of neurobiology, models and cognition
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A systematic review of the neurophysiology of mindfulness on EEG oscillations
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Increased global functional connectivity correlates with LSD-induced ego dissolution
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Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report
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5-HT2AReceptor-Mediated Regulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor mRNA in the Hippocampus and the Neocortex
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Political Orientations Are Correlated with Brain Structure in Young Adults
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Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the ego-dissolution inventory (EDI).
Nour, M. M., Evans, L., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00269 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Broadband Cortical Desynchronization Underlies the Human Psychedelic State
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Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America.
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Cerebral hierarchies: predictive processing, precision and the pulvinar
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Serotonin research: contributions to understanding psychoses
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Semantic diversity: A measure of semantic ambiguity based on variability in the contextual usage of words
Hoffman, P., Lambon Ralph, M. A., & Rogers, T. T. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0278-x · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Increased spontaneous MEG signal diversity for psychoactive doses of ketamine, LSD and psilocybin
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Self-citation
Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects
Schmid, Y., Enzler, F., Gasser, P., Grouzmann, E., Preller, K. H., Vollenweider, F. X., Brenneisen, R., Müller, F., Borgwardt, S., & Liechti, M. E. (2014) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.11.015 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Factor Analysis of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire: A Study of Experiences Occasioned by the Hallucinogen Psilocybin
MacLean, K. A., Leoutsakos, J. S., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2012) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01685.x · Cited by 405 · see citing works
The Fabric of Meaning and Subjective Effects in LSD-Induced States Depend on Serotonin 2A Receptor Activation
Preller, K. H., Herdener, M., Pokorny, T., Planzer, A., Kraehenmann, R., Stämpfli, P., Liechti, M. E., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.030 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience
Tagliazucchi, E., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Nutt, D., & Chialvo, D. R. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22562 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Novelty or Surprise?
Barto, A., Mirolli, M., & Baldassarre, G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00907 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Psychedelics, meditation, and self-consciousness
Millière, R., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Roseman, L., Trautwein, F.-M., & Berkovich-Ohana, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475 · Cited by 390 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Evidence from a series of recent small-scale studies (Moreno et al., 2006; Grob et al., 2011; Gasser et al., 2014; Bogenschutz et al., 2015; Osório Fde et al., 2015; Carhart-Harris et al., 2016a, 2018a; Griffiths et al., 2016; Ross et al., 2016; Palhano-Fontes et al., 2019), in addition to…”
Background
Cognitive performance in healthy older adults relates to spontaneous switching between states of functional connectivity during rest
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Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode of glutamate release
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A High-ResolutionIn VivoAtlas of the Human Brain's Serotonin System
Beliveau, V., Ganz, M., Feng, L., Ozenne, B., Højgaard, L., Fisher, P. M., Svarer, C., Greve, D. N., & Knudsen, G. M. (2017) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2830-16.2016 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Classic psychedelic use is associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the United States adult population
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Active Inference, Curiosity and Insight
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Psychiatry & the psychedelic drugs. Past, present & future
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Finding the self by losing the self: neural correlates of ego-dissolution under psilocybin
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Ayahuasca-Assisted Therapy for Addiction: Results from a Preliminary Observational Study in Canada
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Changes in cognitive flexibility and hypothesis search across human life history from childhood to adolescence to adulthood
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Psilocybin-induced decrease in amygdala reactivity correlates with enhanced positive mood in healthy volunteers
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LSD enhances suggestibility in healthy volunteers
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Realms of the Human Unconscious: Observations from LSD Research
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Connectivity Changes Underlying Spectral EEG Changes during Propofol-Induced Loss of Consciousness
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“Psychiatric comorbidity”: an artefact of current diagnostic systems?
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LSD‐induced entropic brain activity predicts subsequent personality change
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Psilocybin Biases Facial Recognition, Goal-Directed Behavior, and Mood State Toward Positive Relative to Negative Emotions Through Different Serotonergic Subreceptors
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The paradoxical psychological effects of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD
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Effective connectivity changes in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness in humans
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What Geometric Visual Hallucinations Tell Us about the Visual Cortex
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Task-Related Changes in Cortical Synchronization Are Spatially Coincident with the Hemodynamic Response
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Psychedelic therapy for smoking cessation: qualitative analysis of participant accounts
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The effects of psilocybin and MDMA on between-network resting state functional connectivity in healthy volunteers
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The Globalization of Addiction
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Effects of psilocybin therapy on personality structure
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Critical brain networks
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Psychedelics and connectedness
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Peak experiences and the afterglow phenomenon: When and how do therapeutic effects of hallucinogens depend on psychedelic experiences?
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Functional Connectivity Measures After Psilocybin Inform a Novel Hypothesis of Early Psychosis
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Active inference and agency: optimal control without cost functions
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Deep temporal models and active inference
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Seeing with the eyes shut: neural basis of enhanced imagery following ayahuasca ingestion.
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Activity patterns of serotonin neurons underlying cognitive flexibility
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Implications for psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: functional magnetic resonance imaging study with psilocybin
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Long-lasting subjective effects of LSD in normal subjects.
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Psilocybin-Induced Deficits in Automatic and Controlled Inhibition are Attenuated by Ketanserin in Healthy Human Volunteers
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Increased amygdala responses to emotional faces after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression
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Neural correlates of nondual awareness in meditation
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Psychedelics, personality and political perspectives.
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DMT Models the Near-Death Experience
Timmermann, C., Roseman, L., Williams, L., Erritzøe, D., Martial, C., Cassol, H., Laureys, S., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Attentional Modulation of Alpha/Beta and Gamma Oscillations Reflect Functionally Distinct Processes
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Dissociable effects of selective 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonists on serial spatial reversal learning in rats
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Effortless awareness: using real time neurofeedback to investigate correlates of posterior cingulate cortex activity in meditators' self-report
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Long-term use of psychedelic drugs is associated with differences in brain structure and personality in humans.
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Connectome-harmonic decomposition of human brain activity reveals dynamical repertoire re-organization under LSD
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Evidence for the Preferential Involvement of 5-HT2A Serotonin Receptors in Stress- and Drug-Induced Dopamine Release in the Rat Medial Prefrontal Cortex
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Fluoxetine effects on molecular, cellular and behavioral endophenotypes of depression are driven by the living environment
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What is mood? A computational perspective
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Ayahuasca enhances creative divergent thinking while decreasing conventional convergent thinking
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Role of the Serotonin 5-HT2AReceptor in LearningPreprint
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Assessing the psychedelic "after-glow" in ayahuasca users: Post-acute neurometabolic and functional connectivity changes are associated with enhanced mindfulness capacities
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Effect of Psilocybin on Empathy and Moral Decision-Making
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Acetylcholine in cortical inference
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Increased nature relatedness and decreased authoritarian political views after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression
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霊長類大脳皮質の5‐ヒドロキシトリプタミン2Aセロトニン受容体錐体細胞先端樹状突起での幻覚剤及び抗精神病剤の作用部位
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Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy for psychiatric and existential distress in patients with life-threatening cancer.
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DMT alters cortical travelling waves
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Authors: Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Friston, K. J.
Affiliations: Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging (GB)
Corresponding author: Carhart-Harris, R.L.
ORCID: Carhart-Harris, R.L.
Friston, K.J.
Venue: Pharmacological Reviews
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2019-07
Volume: 71
Issue: 3
Pages: 316-344
ISSN: 0031-6997 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1124/pr.118.017160
PMC: PMC6588209
OpenAlex: W2949457836
Cited by: 1,180
References: 283
Citations by year: 2026: 262 · 2025: 245 · 2024: 210 · 2023: 176 · 2022: 135 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 2
FWCI: 11.28
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 2011 d)
Locations: Pharmacological Reviews (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
Keywords: psychedelics, rebus, free energy principle, hierarchical predictive coding, prior distributions, belief updating, spontaneous cortical activity, limbic system, mental illness, consciousness
MeSH terms: Animals, Brain, Culture, Hallucinogens, Humans, Models, Neurological

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REBUS and the anarchic brain: Toward a unified model of the brain action of psychedelics

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