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Reciprocal regulation of the neural and innate immune systems
Open accessAbstract
Innate immune responses are regulated by microorganisms and cell death, as well as by a third class of stress signal from the nervous and endocrine systems. The innate immune system also feeds back, through the production of cytokines, to regulate the function of the central nervous system (CNS), and this has effects on behaviour. These signals provide an extrinsic regulatory circuit that links physiological, social and environmental conditions, as perceived by the CNS, with transcriptional 'decision-making' in leukocytes. CNS-mediated regulation of innate immune responses optimizes total organism fitness and provides new opportunities for therapeutic control of chronic infectious, inflammatory and neuropsychiatric diseases.
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“Two physiological pathways are responsible for converting social-environmental adversity into broad proinflammatory transcriptional programs such as the CTRA.”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Although these regions do not directly regulate inflammatory activity, they have anatomical connections to lower level brain regions, including the hypothalamus and brainstem autonomic control nuclei, which influence systemic inflammation by modulating the activity of the HPA axis and SNS”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Genes up-regulated in socially isolated individuals included a set of transcripts that play a central role in inflammation (e.g., IL1B, IL8, PTGS2), whereas down-regulated transcripts were involved in Type I interferon innate antiviral responses (e.g., ISG, IFI, MX, and OAS family genes) and in antibody production (e.g., IGL, IGH, IGJ, and IGK) [5], [14], [15].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
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In the citing paper
“This hypothesis grows out of mounting evidence that severe childhood stressors promote the formation of a neural-immune pipeline (15), wherein inflammatory cytokine signaling between the brain and the periphery is markedly amplified (16).”
From Clustering of depression and inflammation in adolescents previously exposed to childhood adversity (2012) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In what neuroimmunologist Stephen Cole refers to as the Conserved Transcriptional Response to Adversity (CTRA), increased chronic social adversity is associated with white blood cells amplifying transcription and expression of proinflammatory cytokines (Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
From On race, human variation, and who gets and dies of sepsis (2022) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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In the citing paper
“Once released, norepinephrine modulates immune response gene transcription via stimulation of β -adrenergic receptors”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“a biologically plausible pathway exists by which stressors occurring in the social environment may influence inflammatory activity”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“the brain can modulate inflammatory activity throughout the body via the processes described earlier -namely, SNS-related β -adrenergic signaling and HPA axis-related cortisol production”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Irwin & Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“When threat is perceived, the SNS releases noradrenaline, which promotes mobilization of stem cells from the bone marrow and activates immune gene transcription within white blood cells, organs, and tissues (Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
From Developmental psychoneuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune pathways from childhood adversity to disease (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“Parallel studies on the transcriptional correlates of social disparities in health subsequently suggested that both physical and psychological processes contribute to the net effect of a given social environment, with each mechanism activating some distinct gene modules as well as a conserved generalized response to adverse life circumstances (Figure 1) [3], [5], [12].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Across these diverse forms of adversity, a common pattern of conserved transcriptional response to adversity (CTRA) has emerged, including increased expression of proinflammatory genes and decreased expression of genes involved in Type I interferon innate antiviral responses and IgG antibody synthesis [3], [5], [28].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“In both, chronic threat and SNS signaling activate tissue-specific transcriptional defense programs that enhance organismic mobility and prime wound healing and antimicrobial responses to tissue injury [3], [5], [36].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“substantial evidence demonstrates a reciprocal relationship between the CNS and innate immunity (Dantzer et al, 2008(Dantzer et al, , 2012;;Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“the SNS allows the CNS to 'steer' innate immune responses between proinflammatory and antiviral phenotypes”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“with evidence that sleep disturbance leads to a similar response”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“norepinephrine regulates immune response gene transcription and proinflammatory cytokine production via stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“the conserved transcriptional response to adversity (CTRA), and is characterized by increased proinflammatory and reduced antiviral skewing of the basal gene expression profile”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“which increases an individual's risk for both viral infection and inflammation-related disease”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“the host defense program is activated by non-physical social, symbolic, anticipated, or imagined threats”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“The inhibitory effects of glucocorticoid activation on immune response gene transcription is mediated by at least three mechanisms.”
From Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity (2017) · cites this paper as Irwin and Cole, 2011
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, hypocortisolimia diminishes negative feedback control of inflammatory cytokines, resulting in the persistent pro-inflammatory profile that is observed in adults with ELAb.(76,77)”
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Citations
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“This is in direct contrast to the gene expression signature associated with chronic stress and suggests that mindfulness meditation may directly counter some of the toxic effects of chronic stress on a molecular level (Cole, 2013, 2014; Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
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“Eventually, the HPI and the BSC induce a series of compensatory physiological processes to direct the body’s metabolic resources to survival needs (Irwin and Cole, 2013; Aerts, 2018).”
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“Stress response is a complex process, in which environmental factors and mental factors are involved to modulate the immune system by activating nervous system [15,16].”
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Khantakova, J. N., Bondar, N. P., Sapronova, A. A., & Reshetnikov, V. V. (2022) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15831 · Cited by 13
“…sympathetic nervous system, cells of the innate immune system are activated: Leukocytes, monocytes and macrophages show greater expression of inflammatory genes and migrate to the site of inflammation, thereby ensuring rapid elimination of the pathogen as well as wound healing (Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
BackgroundAlloy, L. B., Chat, I. K.-Y., Grehl, M. M., Stephenson, A. R., Adogli, Z. V., Olino, T. M., Ellman, L. M., Miller, G. E., & Nusslock, R. (2023) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2023.100643 · Cited by 11
“Although inflammatory cytokines predominately are released by immune cells in the periphery, they can access the brain via active transport, leaky regions of the blood-brain-barrier, or engaging afferent vagal fibers (Haroon et al., 2012; Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
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An association study of m6A methylation with major depressive disorder
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“Previous studies have shown that MDD is closely related to the regulation of the immune system [51–53], and it is known that the immune cells of the three groups are significantly different from each other through calculation, which confirms that it is reasonable to divide MDD patients into three…”
BackgroundBehavioral coping with chronic defeat stress in mice: A systematic review of current protocols
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“…that although inflammatory cytokines are predominately released by immune cells (e.g., monocytes, macrophages) in the periphery, they can access the brain via active transport, leaky regions of the blood – brain-barrier, or engaging afferent vagal fibers (Haroon et al., 2012; Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
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“As glucocorticoids bind to receptors in monocytes, macrophages, and other immune cells, the cells subsequently reduce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and dampen the immune response (Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
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“It is known that some biomolecules (cytokines, adhesion molecules, and the complement system) participating in innate immunity are expressed in the healthy brain and play an important part in neurogenesis, neuronal migration and differentiation, synapse formation, and neuroplasticity (Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
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“An open question for future research is to clarify the bidirectional communication pathways between the brain and the peripheral immune system that give rise to such findings (32,33).”
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“In what neuroimmunologist Stephen Cole refers to as the Conserved Transcriptional Response to Adversity (CTRA), increased chronic social adversity is associated with white blood cells amplifying transcription and expression of proinflammatory cytokines (Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
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Mancuso, R. A., Ross, K. M., Accortt, E. E., Coussons‐Read, M. E., Okun, M. L., Irwin, J. L., Carroll, J., Hobel, C. J., & Schetter, C. D. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.12.014 · Cited by 9
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“…genes involved in type I IFN responses and antibody synthesis included: GBP1 , IFI16 , IFI27 , IFI27L1-2 , IFI30 , IFI35 , IFI44 , IFI44L , IFI6 , IFIH1 , IFIT1-3 , IFIT5 , IFIT1L , IFITM1-3 , IFITM4P , IFITM5 , IFNB1 , IRF2 , IRF7-8 , MX1-2 , OAS1-3 , OASL, IGJ , IGLL1 , and IGLL3 [48,52].”
Self-citationIakunchykova, O. P., Pan, M., Amlien, I. K., Roe, J. M., Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., Chen, C., Benros, M. E., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100754 · Cited by 10
“These immunologically induced sleep alterations are believed to play an adaptive role and promote recovery from infection (Irwin and Cole, 2011; Krueger et al., 2016).”
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“The studies of Cole and colleagues (Irwin and Cole, 2011; Fredrickson et al., 2015; Cole, 2019) discussed in Section 3.”
BackgroundSichko, S., Bui, T. Q., Vinograd, M., Shields, G. S., Saha, K., Devkota, S., Alvarez, H. A. O., Carroll, J., Cole, S. W., Irwin, M. R., et al. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100334 · Cited by 9
“Analyses testing for potential group differences will fi rst be evaluated at p < .05 using a priori , anatomically de fi ned ROIs in the threat network (Eisenberger and Cole, 2012; Irwin and Cole, 2011).”
MethodSelf-citationLee, J., Lee, H., & Kang, H. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03550-2 · Cited by 9
“This chronic inflammatory response may alter the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to infectious agents [7, 8].”
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Rad GTPase Deletion Attenuates Post-Ischemic Cardiac Dysfunction and Remodeling
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“These 2 effects may also be interconnected, given that an important trigger for neutrophil extravasation and inflammation is the sympathetic nervous system, which is activated in the presence of depressed cardiac output (33).”
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“Psychological and emotional stress may interfere with the pituitary–adrenal axis of the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system and disrupts the immune system (Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
BackgroundBallard, P. J., Muscatell, K. A., Hoyt, L. T., Flores, A. J., & Mendes, W. B. (2020) · Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0899764020933360 · Cited by 9
“…high arousal affective states (Mendes, 2016) and prior research has shown that heightened SNS activation is linked with long-term alterations in hormonal and immune processes that are detrimental to mental and physical health outcomes (Grebe et al., 2010; Irwin & Cole, 2011; Levick et al., 2010).”
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“Broadly, these changes have been interpreted to indicate a down-regulation of antiviral defenses and a corresponding up-regulation of proinflammatory wound-healing and antibacterial defenses (13, 14).”
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“Outside of pregnancy, adults with mental illness are at elevated risk of autoimmune diseases,(11) particularly those with brain-reactive antibodies,(12) with mechanisms possibly linked to the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which regulate immune functioning.(13,14) Our objective was…”
BackgroundInflammation as a mediator of stress-related psychiatric disorders
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Biobehavioral Implications of Covid-19 for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy Recipients
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“First, activation of the glucocorticoid receptor inhibits the transcription of many immune response genes; second, activation of the glucocorticoid receptor induces the transcription of certain anti-inflammatory genes (such as NFKBIA, which encodes IκBα), which interferes with the activation of the transcription facto…”
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“Sleep participants in the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis which changes the basal gene expression profile and leads to more proinflammatory skewing (29, 30).”
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“It is a period essential for growth, differentiation and renewal of cells, and it plays an important role in immunity (12, 13).”
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“Generally, activation of sympathetic branches of the ANS can lead to increased inflammation, and activation of parasympathetic branches of the ANS can lead to decreased inflammation (29, 30).”
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“Poor sleep can lead to the development of depression or the worsening of symptoms through reductions in prefrontal cortex activity, impaired immune system function, and increased inflammation [45].”
The stress-immune system axis: Exploring the interplay between stress and immunity
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“Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced by the sympathetic division of the SNS and the adrenal medulla, signaling physiological changes in response to a dangerous scenario (28, 29), which act either locally (paracrine function) or systemically via the vascular system (Table 1).”
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A Combined Analysis of Genetically Correlated Traits Identifies Genes and Brain Regions for Insomnia
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“During sleep disturbance, the sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine into primary and secondary lymphoid organs and stimulates the adrenal gland to release epinephrine into the systemic circulation.(30,31) Neuromodulators, such as epinephrine, acidic fibroblast growth factor, and epidermal Figure 4.”
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“presence of chronic pain can activate the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis and alter the function of the immune and endocrine systems.(26,28,46,49,68) At the Renmin”
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“Some scholars believe that TC can activate neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous functions, secrete neurochemicals, cause behavioral responses in analgesic pathways, and then regulate inflammatory responses of the immune system.([34,35]) In the process of training,”
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Integrating biobehavioral information to predict mood disorder suicide risk
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Social neuroscience and social genomics: the emergence of multi-level integrative analyses
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“For instance, behavioral and mental processes can influence one’s abilities to fight bacteria and viruses (Irwin & Cole, 2011).”
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Genetic Factors and Endocrine and Immune System Functioning Associated with Alexithymia
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Metadata
- Authors
- Irwin, M. R., & Cole, S. W.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Irwin, Michael R.
- ORCID
- Irwin, Michael R.
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Immunology
- Published
- 2011-08-05
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 625-632
- ISSN
- 1474-1733 (ISSN-L)
- 1474-1741
- PMC
- PMC3597082
- OpenAlex
- W2078619626
- Cited by
- 910
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Immunology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland
- National Institutes of Health (1ul1rr033176-01, UL1TR000124)
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026364, R01AG034588, R37AG033590, P30AG028748, R01AG033590)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL079955)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH091352)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (F31DA024904)
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA116778, R21CA138687, R01CA119159)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1-RR-033176)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Keywords
- neuroimmune interactions, innate immunity, behavior, cytokines, stress, infection, neuropsychiatric disorders, chronic inflammation, chronic infection
- MeSH terms
- Central Nervous System, Endocrine System, Genes, MHC Class II, Humans, Immunity, Innate, Inflammation, Leukocytes, Neuroimmunomodulation, Signal Transduction, Cytokines
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