Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals
Abstract
The most commonly recognized behavioral patterns of animals and people at the onset of febrile infectious diseases are lethargy, depression, anorexia, and reduction in grooming. Findings from recent lines of research are reviewed to formulate the perspective that the behavior of sick animals and people is not a maladaptive response or the effect of debilitation, but rather an organized, evolved behavioral strategy to facilitate the role of fever in combating viral and bacterial infections. The sick individual is viewed as being at a life or death juncture and its behavior is an all-out effort to overcome the disease.
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Sickness behaviors represent an organized, highly adaptive response to infection.
“sickness behaviors represent an organized, highly adaptive response to infection”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Hart, 1988
These behaviors are collectively called sickness behaviors and are thought to facilitate an organism's recuperation and recovery from injury or infection.
“These behaviors have been collectively called sickness behaviors, and they are thought to facilitate an organism's recuperation and recovery from injury or infection”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Hart, 1988
This "sickness behavior" correlates with a lower appetite and decreased drinking rates, leading to diminished daily gains.
“This “sickness behavior” correlates with a lower appetite and decreased drinking rates, leading to diminished daily gains [91,99].”
From Strategies for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Diagnosis and Prognosis: A Comprehensive Overview (2024) · cites this paper as [91]
The underlying cause is the need to save energy for immune functions and the impact of fever and inflammation due to infection.
“The underlying cause is the need to save energy for immune functions and the impact of fever and inflammation due to infection [91].”
From Strategies for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Diagnosis and Prognosis: A Comprehensive Overview (2024) · cites this paper as [91]
Alertness, or its lack, serves as a critical indicator of behavioral alterations linked to illness.
“Alertness, or its lack thereof, serves as a critical indicator of behavioral alterations linked to illness [91].”
From Strategies for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Diagnosis and Prognosis: A Comprehensive Overview (2024) · cites this paper as [91]
Calves with BRD often exhibit reduced activity, likely a strategy to conserve energy essential for an effective immune response.
“Calves with BRD often exhibit reduced activity, likely a strategy to conserve energy essential for an effective immune response.”
From Strategies for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Diagnosis and Prognosis: A Comprehensive Overview (2024) · cites this paper as [91]
The behavioral immune system should generate not only behavioral prophylaxis, but should also include psychological mechanisms underlying behavioral responses to infection that allow the organism to heal and recover, should prophylaxis fail.
“Along similar lines, one might push the notion even further that the behavioral immune system should generate not only behavioral prophylaxis, but should also include psychological mechanisms underlying behavioral responses to infection that allow the organism to heal and recover, should prophylaxis fail ( sensu Hart 1988).”
From Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity (2012) · cites this paper as Hart 1988
Peripherally produced pro-inflammatory cytokines act on the brain to cause the behavioural symptoms of sickness.
“However, these peripherally produced cytokines also act on the brain to cause the aforementioned behavioural symptoms of sickness.”
From From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain (2008) · cites this paper as [2]
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“Hart and others (Hart, 1988; Dantzer et al., 2008) suggest that changes in physiology and behavior during infection are adaptive.”
Background
- Authors
- Hart, B. L.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hart, Benjamin L.
- ORCID
- Hart, Benjamin L.
- Venue
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1988-06
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 123-137
- ISSN
- 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2099555137
- Cited by
- 2,223
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 136 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 89 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 86 · 2012: 101
- FWCI
- 0.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Research Resources (RR05457)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine › Thermal Regulation in Medicine
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- fever, animal behavior, lethargy, anorexia, grooming, behavioral strategies, viral infection, bacterial infection, host defense
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Diseases, Animals, Wild, Arousal, Behavior, Animal, Energy Metabolism, Feeding Behavior, Fever, Interleukin-1, Sleep, Neuroimmunomodulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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