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Technological integration and innovation in architectural ceramics in the Yuan Dynasty: chemical investigation for the glazed tiles of the Prince Anxi’ s mansion, China

Open access
Shi, Ruoyu, Wen, Rui, Ma, Qiang, Wang, Wenxuan·2025·npj Heritage Science
DOI 10.1038/s40494-025-01574-5

Published version of a preprint

Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Abstract Glazed tiles, a symbol of high-grade architecture in ancient China, first appeared in the Northern Wei Dynasty (AD. 386–534). They reached their peak in the Ming and Qing Dynasties (AD. 1368–1912), and the Yuan Dynasty (AD. 1271–1368) was a key stage in the development and maturity of the glazed tile technology. As one of the representatives of royal architecture in the early Yuan Dynasty, scientific research on the unearthed glazed tiles from the site of Prince Anxi's mansion can assist to understand how glazed tile technology matured during the Yuan Dynasty. Using compositional analysis and microscopic observation, 24 glazed tiles from the Prince Anxi's mansion were systematically examined in this study. The findings revealed that the glazed tiles were made using four different production formulas and came from three different technological traditions, which originated from the integration of various regions' glazed tile production technologies and enhanced innovation within the currently used technologies. The resulting glazed tile production technologies exhibit a high degree of similarity with the Yuan Dadu 's glazed tile production technologies, suggesting that integration and innovation are crucial for the Yuan Dynasty's glazed tile technologies to mature.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Chemical and microscopic analysis of 24 glazed tiles from the Yuan Dynasty Prince Anxi’s mansion identifies four glaze colors made via multiple production formulas and three technological traditions, linking green/yellow tiles to Yuandadu lead glazes, white tiles to Xixia calcium glazes, and blue tiles to turquoise-blue PbO-K2O-SiO2 glazes. The authors argue this reflects integration of regional ceramic technologies and innovation during the Yuan Dynasty.

Key findings

  • The 24 tiles comprise green (AXWF-001–006), yellow (AXWF-007–012), white (AXWF-013–018), and blue (AXWF-019–024) glazes; bodies group into red (green/yellow), brownish-yellow (white), and grey (blue). The abstract reports four production formulas and three technological traditions.
  • Glaze chemistry: green glaze has SiO2 37–40% and PbO 40–50%; yellow glaze has SiO2 21–27%, PbO 66–72%, and Fe2O3 2–4%; white glaze is a high-temperature calcium glaze with SiO2 66–69%, Al2O3 11–20%, and CaO 14–16%; blue glaze belongs to the PbO-K2O-SiO2 system with SiO2 62–68%, PbO 6–8%, Al2O3 1.2–3.7%, Na2O 1.5–1.6%, K2O 9.5–12.7%, and CuO 4–7%.
  • Green and yellow lead-silicon ratios resemble Yuandadu samples (green 1–1.25; yellow 2.5–3); white glaze is highly similar to white porcelain from the Xixia mausoleum site; blue glaze is highly similar to Yuandadu turquoise blue glaze.
  • Green and yellow tiles have a slip layer between glaze and body (green slip ~20 µm; yellow slip ~200 µm), while white and blue tiles have no slip; glaze thicknesses are green 70–130 µm, yellow 80–160 µm, white 250–300 µm, and blue 30–110 µm.

Methods

  • 24 glazed tile samples from the Prince Anxi’s mansion, provided by the Ningxia Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology; samples with complete and smooth glaze were selected, documented, cut through body and glaze, and ground/polished.
  • EDXRF (BRUKER ARTAX 400 mXRF) measured glaze and body chemistry: 30 kV, 900 mA, high-purity helium, 1 mm beam, 300 s counting, detection limit 0.02% for most elements, Corning Glass Standards calibration, and at least 3 tests per sample averaged.
  • Petrology used polarizing microscopy on resin-mounted sections; micro-XRD (Smartlab, Rigaku, CuKɑ, 45 kV, 200 mA, 5–90°, D/tex detector, 298 K, 10 min, Jade 6.5) determined crystalline phases; principal component analysis compared compositions with contemporaneous Yuan sites and other white/blue glazed materials.

Limitations

  • The paper does not include an explicit limitations section. It states that comparative research on blue and white glazed tiles is “still little to known” and that “a limited number of shards” means production information is not always well established.
  • Evident from the text: the study analyzes only 24 tiles from a single site, so broader generalization to all Yuan glazed tile production is constrained; comparative PCA relies on previously published datasets from other sites rather than new samples.
  • Evident from the text: conclusions about multiple craftsperson groups and technology transfer are inferred from compositional similarity and historical literature, not direct workshop or production evidence.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s40494-025-01574-5

Cites

18 of 18 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 5 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingreasoning

    The third group consists of gray base materials observed in blue glazed tiles.

    “and the third group consists of gray base materials observed in blue glazed tiles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    For green glazed tiles as AXWF-002, the main component of the base body material is quartz and rankinite.

    “For green glazed tiles as AXWF-002, the main component of the base body material is quartz and rankinite.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The glazed tiles from the Prince Anxi's mansion came from three different technological traditions.

    “and came from three different technological traditions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Yellow glazed tiles like AXWF-011 are composed primarily of quartz and margarite.

    “Yellow glazed tiles like AXWF-011, on the other hand, are composed primarily of quartz and margarite.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In all samples, the base materials of different colored glazed ceramic tiles vary.

    “In all samples, the base materials of different colored glazed ceramic tiles vary.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
  • May combine two claims. 32

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Clinozoisite is generated from feldspar through specific chemical reactions.

    “Additionally, clinozoisite is generated from feldspar through specific chemical reactions [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Shen, J. et al. Architectural glazed tiles used in ancient chinese screen walls (15th–18th century AD): ceramic technology, decay process and conservation[J]. Materials 14, 7146 (2021). source

      Section 3.1 identifies feldspar in the glazed-tile paste but does not mention clinozoisite or describe feldspar producing it. Searches for “clinozoisite” and for feldspar alteration reactions found no passage addressing the claimed transformation; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Green glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 70 to 130 micrometers, a deep green color, a glossy and dense surface, and a brick-red slip approximately 20 micrometers thick between the glaze and body.

    “In the case of green glazed tiles, the glaze layer thickness ranges from 70 to 130 micrometers.The glaze layer appears as a deep green color, displaying a glossy and dense surface.There is a layer of brick-red slip with a thickness of approximately 20 micrometers between the glaze and body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the chemical composition of the brownish-yellow base materials, SiO2 ranges from 53.96% to 55.65%, Al2O3 from 33.11% to 35.32%, and Fe2O3 from 4.73% to 7.47%; the sum of these three compounds exceeds 95%.

    “In the chemical composition of the brownish-yellow base materials, the content of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is 53.96% to 55.65%, 33.11% to 35.32%, and 4.73% to 7.47%, respectively.The sum of these three compounds exceeds 95%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Each base material includes quartz.

    “Each base material includes quartz, which is essential for the preparation of ceramic tile bases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The samples AXWF-019~024 are in grey body.

    “the samples AXWF-019~024 are in grey body”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Yellow glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 80 to 160 micrometers, a yellow-brown color, a glossy and dense surface, and a milky-white slip approximately 200 micrometers thick between the glaze and body.

    “Yellow glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 80 to 160 micrometers.The glaze layer exhibits a yellow-brown color, with a glossy and dense surface.There is a layer of milky-white slip with a thickness of approximately 200 micrometers between the glaze and body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the chemical composition of the gray base materials, SiO2 ranges from 57.25% to 60.28%, Al2O3 from 14.97% to 15.37%, Fe2O3 from 5.87% to 6.3%, and CaO from 15.1% to 17.16%; the sum of these four compounds exceeds 95%.

    “Regarding the gray base materials, the fluctuation in the content of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is relatively small, ranging from 57.25% to 60.28%, 14.97% to 15.37%, and 5.87% to 6.3%, respectively.The CaO content is relatively high, ranging from 15.1% to 17.16%.The sum of these four compounds also exceeds 95%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the chemical composition of the red base materials, SiO2 ranges from 64.31% to 68%, Al2O3 from 15.08% to 16.03%, Fe2O3 from 4.53% to 6.28%, and CaO from 6.36% to 11.34%; the sum of these four compounds exceeds 95%.

    “In the chemical composition of the red base materials, the fluctuation in the content of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is relatively small, ranging from 64.31% to 68%, 15.08% to 16.03%, and 4.53% to 6.28%, respectively.The content of CaO varies significantly, ranging from 6.36% to 11.34%.The sum of these four compounds exceeds 95%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The roundness of particles in blue glazed tile base material varies, and the mineral composition is diverse, including quartz, pyroxene, calcite, and epidote.

    “The roundness of the particles varies, and the mineral composition is diverse, including quartz, pyroxene, calcite, and epidote.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Blue glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 30 to 110 micrometers, a deep blue color, some signs of weathering, and no slip.

    “Blue glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 30 to 110 micrometers.The glaze layer appears as a deep blue color, with some signs of weathering.There is no slip present.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The body of samples AXWF-001~012 is brick red clay.

    “the body of the samples AXWF-001~012 is brick red clay”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The body of samples AXWF-013~018 is brownish yellow clay with sand.

    “the body of samples AXWF-013~018 is brownish yellow clay with sand”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In the base material of white glazed tiles AXWF-015, there are corundum (mainly Al2O3) and aragonite and suolunite (mainly CaCO3).

    “In the base material of white glazed tiles AXWF-015, there are corundum(mainly Al2O3) and aragonite and suolunite (mainly CaCO3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    According to Table 1, the base materials can be divided into three groups based on their colors.

    “According to Table 1, the base materials can be divided into three groups based on their colors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The base body material of blue glazed tiles has the most complex mineral particle types, with particle sizes ranging from 50 to 250 micrometers.

    “The base body material of blue glazed tiles has the most complex mineral particle types, with particle sizes ranging from 50 to 250”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    White glazed tiles have a glaze layer thickness ranging from 250 to 300 micrometers, a smooth and even milky-white color with a hint of gray, are extremely dense, and contain no slip.

    “White glazed tiles possess a glaze layer thickness ranging from 250 to 300 micrometers.The glaze layer is smooth and even, with a milky-white color and a hint of gray.It is extremely dense and does not contain any slip.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The mineral composition of white glazed tile base material is more diverse, including quartz, mica, and corundum, with a higher degree of roundness.

    “The mineral composition is more diverse, including quartz, mica, and corundum, with a higher degree of roundness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The glaze layers of the four types of glazed ceramic tiles have distinct differences and characteristics, but all are dense and free from air bubbles.

    “the observations and records of the glaze layers of the four types of glazed ceramic tiles have revealed distinct differences and characteristics.However, a common trait among all of them is that they are dense and free from air bubbles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In white glazed tiles, the mineral particles of the base material vary in size and can be classified into particles below 20 micrometers and particles around 200 micrometers.

    “In white glazed tiles, the mineral particles of the base material vary in size.They can be classified into two types: particles below 20 micrometers and particles around 200 micrometers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the chemical composition of blue glaze, SiO2 content is between 62%~68%, PbO between 6%~8%, Al2O3 between 1.2%~3.7%, Na2O is 1.5%~1.6%, K2O is 9.5%~12.7%, and the colorant CuO content is between 4%~7%.

    “In the chemical composition of blue glaze, the content of SiO2 is between 62%~ 68%, the content of PbO and Al2O3 is lower, between 6%~8% and 1.2%~3.7%respectively.In addition, the content of Na2O is 1.5%~ 1.6% and K2O is 9.5%~ 12.7%, the colorant should be CuO, the content is between 4%~ 7%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The lead-silicon ratio of prince Anxi's mansion's green glaze samples is similar to Yuandadu samples, both falling within 1 to 1.5, and lower than data from other four city sites.

    “As seen in Figure 7a, the lead-silicon ratio of the prince Anxi's mansion's green glaze samples ranges between 1 and 1.25, similar to the Yuandadu samples, both falling within the 1 to 1.5 range and lower than the data from the other four city sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The lead-silicon ratio of prince Anxi's mansion's yellow glaze samples is similar to Yuandadu samples and higher than data from other two city sites.

    “For yellow glazed tiles, the data from the prince Anxi's mansion is shown in Figure 7b, with the lead-silicon ratio ranging between 2.5 and 3, similar to the Yuandadu samples and higher than the data from the other two city sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In the chemical composition of white glaze, there is no colorant, SiO2 content is 66%~69%, Al2O3 is 11%~20%, and CaO is 14%~16%.

    “In the chemical composition of white glaze, there is no colorant, the content of SiO2 is 66%~ 69%, Al2O3 is 11%~ 20%, CaO is 14% ~ 16%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the chemical composition of yellow glaze, SiO2 content is between 21% and 27%, PbO content is between 66% and 72%, and the colorant Fe2O3 content is between 2% and 4%.

    “In the chemical composition of yellow glaze, the content of SiO2 is between 21% and 27%.The content of PbO is between 66% and 72%.The colorant is Fe2O3 with content between 2% and 4%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In the chemical composition of green glaze, SiO2 content is between 37% and 40%, and PbO content is between 40% and 50%.

    “In the chemical composition of green glaze, the content of SiO2 is between 37% and 40%, the content of PbO is between 40% and 50%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The sum of SiO2 and PbO in the glaze of green and yellow glazed tiles is above 75% and 85%, respectively.

    “The sum of the basic substances SiO2 and flux PbO in the glaze is above 75% and 85%, respectively, directly determining the main formulation of the glaze.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Corning Glass Standards (Corning glass A, B, C and D) were used for calibration of the EDXRF concentration results.

    “Corning Glass Standards (Corning glass A, B, C and D) were used for calibration and the concentration results were calculated using ARTAX software.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    All of the glaze layers exhibit a dense and glossy surface, indicating a high-quality finish.

    “All of the glaze layers exhibit a dense and glossy surface, indicating a high-quality finish.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    According to the composition of the glaze layer, SiO2 and Al2O3 are the basic materials of glaze, K2O, CaO and PbO may be used as fluxes, and Fe2O3 and CuO as colorants.

    “According to the composition of glaze layer, SiO2 and Al2O3 are the basic materials of glaze, K2O, CaO and PbO may be used as fluxes, Fe2O3 and CuO as colorants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The glaze and body of each sample were tested at least 3 times and the mean value was used to represent the chemical composition of the tested area.

    “The glaze and body of each sample were tested at least 3 times and the mean value was used to represent the chemical composition of the tested area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Slip is a slurry made from specially processed fine porcelain clay or selected raw materials to improve quality and enhance glaze coloration.

    “It is a slurry made from specially processed fine porcelain clay or selected raw materials to improve the quality of ceramic ware and enhance glaze coloration [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Ma, D. Z. Record of the survey of the Anxi royal residence of the Yuan dynasty in Xi’an. Archaeol. 05, 20–26 (1960).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The third category is blue glaze, more precisely turquoise blue glaze, with production techniques closely associated with Yuandadu.

    “The third category is the blue glaze, more precisely referred to as turquoise blue glaze, with production techniques closely associated with Yuandadu.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The first category belongs to the lead glaze system, represented by green and yellow glazed tiles, with production techniques similar to Yuandadu.

    “The first category belongs to the lead glaze system, represented by the green and yellow glazed tiles, with production techniques similar to those of Yuandadu.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Microscopic examination of the brown tile body reveals larger mineral particles, likely including unmelted corundum particles, further suggesting the inclusion of corundum in the raw materials.

    “Microscopic examination of the brown tile body reveals larger mineral particles, likely including unmelted corundum particles, further suggesting the inclusion of corundum in the raw materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The melting point of corundum generally exceeds the firing temperature of ceramics (2000-2030 degrees Celsius).

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous research has shown that green, yellow, and blue glazed tiles from Yuandadu, Yuanshangdu, and Yuanzhongdu all have slip.

    “Previous research has shown that green, yellow, and blue glazed tiles from Yuandadu, Yuanshangdu, and Yuanzhongdu all have slip [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Ma, D. H. & Cheng, Y. X. Investigation brief on the architectural site of the Yuan Dynasty Anxi Wangfu in Kaicheng, Guyuan, Ningxia. J. Chin. History Museum 01, 110–127 (2000).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The high similarity between data from prince Anxi's mansion and Yuandadu suggests that the two sites employed similar production formulations, likely due to their proximity in construction times.

    “The high similarity between the data from the prince Anxi's mansion and Yuandadu suggests that the two sites employed similar production formulations, likely due to their proximity in construction times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Yuandadu was founded in 1267 AD, and prince Anxi's mansion was established in 1272 AD.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The production technology of glazed tiles in prince Anxi's mansion includes three systems, with craftsmen employing different production techniques, contributing to a diverse source.

    “Therefore, the production technology of glazed tiles in the prince Anxi's mansion include three systems, with craftsmen employing different production techniques, contributing to a diverse source.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The turquoise blue glaze technique originated in Islamic regions of West Asia, and after its introduction to China during Tang Dynasty, it was improved during Jin and Yuan periods.

    “However, the turquoise blue glaze technique originated in the Islamic regions of West Asia, and after its introduction to China during the Tang Dynasty, it was improved during the Jin and Yuan periods [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Yin, X. S., Huang, T. J. & Gong, H. Chemical evolution of lead in ancient artifacts -A case study of early Chinese lead-silicate glaze. J. Eur. Cer. Soc. 40, 2222–2228 (2020). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prince Anxi learned from construction system of Yuan Dynasty capital cities, indirectly facilitating innovation of glazed tile technology.

    “Based on these factors, prince Anxi learned from the construction system of the Yuan Dynasty capital cities, indirectly facilitating the innovation of glazed tile technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The second category is white glaze, classified as calcium glaze, highly similar to white glazed tiles from Xixia mausoleum site.

    “The second category is the white glaze, and its chemical composition classifies it as a calcium glaze, highly similar to the white glazed tiles from Xixia mausoleum site.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The similarity in the processing of minerals and clay raw materials, minimal impurities, and small particle size of mineral grains after crushing indicate thorough grinding and firing.

    “The similarity in the processing of minerals and clay raw materials, minimal impurities, and small particle size of mineral grains after crushing indicate thorough grinding and firing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
41 of 41

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Comparative research on the composition of blue and white with glazed tiles is still little known.

    “Comparative research on the composition of the blue and white with glazed tiles are still little to known.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The melting point of corundum generally exceeds the firing temperature of ceramics (2000-2030 degrees Celsius).

    “Since the melting point of corundum generally exceeds the firing temperature of ceramics (2000-2030 degrees Celsius), it can be retained intact in the tile body.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Yuandadu was founded in 1267 AD, and prince Anxi's mansion was established in 1272 AD.

    “Yuandadu was founded in 1267 AD, and the prince Anxi's mansion was established in 1272 AD, suggesting that the two constructures were built around the same time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The composition system of white glaze on architectural ceramics is not yet clear because it is rare in Chinese ceramic history, currently only found in the Wenjiangduo site, Xixia mausoleum site, and Yuandadu site.

    “The composition system of white glaze on architectual ceramics is not yet clea because it is rare in Chinese ceramic history, currently only found in the Wenjiangduo site from the Tubo period, the Xixia mausoleum site, and the Yuandadu site.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Xixia mausoleum site is located in Yinchuan City, Ningxia, less than 350 km from Guyuan City where prince Anxi's mansion is situated.

    “The Xixia mausoleum site is located in Yinchuan City, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, less than 350 km from Guyuan City where the prince Anxi's mansion is situated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In areas conquered, it was a common practice for nomadic tribes to raid craftsmen and engage in technical production, thus inadvertently promoting exchange and integration of technology.

    “In areas conquered, it was a common practice for nomadic tribes to raid craftsmen and engage in technical production, thus inadvertently promoting the exchange and integration of technology.”
6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Blue-glaze PbO exceeds its stated range

    Minor

    AXWF-022 contains 8.73% PbO, above the stated blue-glaze maximum of 8%.

  • Green-glaze PbO exceeds its stated range

    Minor

    The green glaze of AXWF-005 contains 53.64% PbO, rather than falling within the stated 40-50% range.

  • Green-glaze SiO2 falls below its stated range

    Minor

    AXWF-005 contains 36.39% SiO2, below the stated green-glaze range of 37-40%.

  • A red tile body exceeds the stated Fe2O3 maximum

    Minor

    The stated maximum is 6.28%, but Table 1 lists 6.45% Fe2O3 for AXWF-005.

  • Blue-glaze Na2O exceeds its stated range

    Minor

    AXWF-021 contains 1.67% Na2O, above the stated maximum of 1.6%.

  • AXWF-016 falls outside both stated white-glaze ranges

    Minor

    The listed AXWF-016 glaze contains 64.66% SiO2 and 9.85% CaO, below the stated white-glaze ranges of 66-69% and 14-16%, respectively.

  • Discussion says three tile colors although four were sampled

    Minor

    The discussion refers to glazed tiles in three different colors, whereas the sample description identifies green, yellow, white and blue tiles.

  • Yellow-glaze PbO exceeds its stated range

    Minor

    AXWF-009 contains 73.64% PbO, above the stated yellow-glaze maximum of 72%.

  • Blue-glaze Al2O3 falls below its stated range

    Minor

    AXWF-020 contains 0.97% Al2O3, below the stated minimum of 1.2%.

9 of 9

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 21

  1. Chen, G. H. The rise and fall of Yuan Zhongdu[J]. Cult. Relics Spring Autumn 03, 20–23 (1998).
  2. Ma, D. Z. Record of the survey of the Anxi royal residence of the Yuan dynasty in Xi’an. Archaeol. 05, 20–26 (1960).
  3. Ma, D. H. & Cheng, Y. X. Investigation brief on the architectural site of the Yuan Dynasty Anxi Wangfu in Kaicheng, Guyuan, Ningxia. J. Chin. History Museum 01, 110–127 (2000).
  4. Shi, R. Y. Research on the characteristics and origin of architectural glazing process in the Yuan Dynasty capital city. Northwest Univ. 3, 56–60 (2022).
  5. Guo, Q. Tile and Brick Making in China: a Study of the” Yingzao Fashi”. Construction History 16, 3–11 (2000).
  6. Wen, R. et al. Detection and analysis of glazed tile body excavated from Yuan Shangdu and Yuan Zhongdu site. J. Palace Museum. 4, 95–103 (2021).
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Related

Authors
Shi, R., Wen, R., Ma, Q., & Wang, W.
Affiliations
Northwest University (CN)
Corresponding author
Wen, Rui
ORCID
Venue
npj Heritage Science
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-04-03
Volume
13
Issue
1
ISSN
3059-3220 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s40494-025-01574-5
OpenAlex
W4409153548
Semantic Scholar
071ddb80c124063ece23770472e2c4e4cb38c9cb
Cited by
0
References
14
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • npj Heritage Science (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • National Social Science Fund of China (No. 22BKG023)
  • Northwestern university 2024 graduate research and innovation program (No. CX2024100)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Earth-Surface Processes › Building materials and conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Recycling and utilization of industrial and municipal waste in materials production
Keywords
glazed tiles, architectural ceramics, Yuan dynasty, technology integration, technological innovation, ceramic composition, ancient Chinese ceramics, ceramic glazes

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