The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Incidence, prevalence, and global burden of ADHD from 1990 to 2019 across 204 countries: data, with critical re-analysis, from the Global Burden of Disease study
Open accessAbstract
Data on incidence, prevalence and burden of ADHD are crucial for clinicians, patients, and stakeholders. We present the incidence, prevalence, and burden of ADHD globally and across countries from 1990 to 2019 from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. We also: (1) calculated the ADHD prevalence based on data actually collected as opposed to the prevalence estimated by the GBD with data imputation for countries without prevalence data; (2) discussed the GBD estimated ADHD burden in the light of recent meta-analytic evidence on ADHD-related mortality. In 2019, GBD estimated global age-standardized incidence and prevalence of ADHD across the lifespan at 0.061% (95%UI = 0.040–0.087) and 1.13% (95%UI = 0.831–1.494), respectively. ADHD accounted for 0.8% of the global mental disorder DALYs, with mortality set at zero by the GBD. From 1990 to 2019 there was a decrease of −8.75% in the global age-standardized prevalence and of −4.77% in the global age-standardized incidence. The largest increase in incidence, prevalence, and burden from 1990 to 2019 was observed in the USA; the largest decrease occurred in Finland. Incidence, prevalence, and DALYs remained approximately 2.5 times higher in males than females from 1990 to 2019. Incidence peaked at age 5–9 years, and prevalence and DALYs at age 10–14 years. Our re-analysis of data prior to 2013 showed a prevalence in children/adolescents two-fold higher (5.41%, 95% CI: 4.67–6.15%) compared to the corresponding GBD estimated prevalence (2.68%, 1.83–3.72%), with no significant differences between low- and middle- and high-income countries. We also found meta-analytic evidence of significantly increased ADHD-related mortality due to unnatural causes. While it provides the most detailed evidence on temporal trends, as well as on geographic and sex variations in incidence, prevalence, and burden of ADHD, the GBD may have underestimated the ADHD prevalence and burden. Given the influence of the GBD on research and policies, methodological issues should be addressed in its future editions.
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“The sum of YLDs and YLLs is referred to as disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), with one DALY equaling the loss of one healthy year of life [6].”
Self-citationVos, T., Allen, C., Arora, M., Barber, R. M., Bhutta, Z. A., Brown, A., Carter, A., Casey, D. C., Charlson, F. J., Chen, A. Z., et al. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31678-6 · Cited by 7,253 · cited 1×
“Details of the methods are reported in Supplementary Methods 4.”
Self-citationThe worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis
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Self-citationEstimating the true global burden of mental illness
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“…incidence, prevalence, and burden of ADHD by country/region and sex across each year in the period 1990 – 2019 as estimated by the GBD. Additionally, even though the GBD provides data that are in fl uential on research and policies, some of its methodological aspects have been criticized [9, 10].”
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Self-citationPrevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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“Prevalence, Incidence, and DALYs attributable to attention-de fi cit/hyperactivity disorder, by 5-year (age-standardized rate per 100,000).”
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Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Kieling, C., Buchweitz, C., Caye, A., Silvani, J., Ameis, S. H., Brunoni, A. R., Cost, K. T., Courtney, D. B., Georgiades, K., Merikangas, K. R., et al. (2024) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.5051 · Cited by 687
Self-citationOstinelli, E. G., Schulze, M., Zangani, C., Farhat, L. C., Tomlinson, A., Giovane, C. D., Chamberlain, S. R., Philipsen, A., Young, S., Cowen, P. J., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(24)00360-2 · Cited by 104
Self-citationCortese, S., Bellgrove, M. A., Brikell, I., Franke, B., Goodman, D. W., Hartman, C. A., Larsson, H., LEVIN, F. R., Ostinelli, E. G., Parlatini, V., et al. (2025) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21374 · Cited by 99
Self-citationZhang, L., Zhu, N., Sjölander, A., Nourredine, M., Li, L., Garcia‐Argibay, M., Kuja‐Halkola, R., Brikell, I., Lichtenstein, P., D'Onofrio, B. M., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-083658 · Cited by 66
Self-citationJurek, L., Duchier, A., Gauld, C., Henault, L., Giroudon, C., Fourneret, P., Cortese, S., & Nourredine, M. (2025) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2025.02.019 · Cited by 48
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Metadata
- Authors
- Cortese, S., Song, M., Farhat, L. C., Yon, D. K., Lee, S. W., Kim, M. S., Park, S., Oh, J. W., Lee, S., Cheon, K.-A., Smith, L., Gosling, C. J., Polanczyk, G. V., Larsson, H., Rohde, L. A., Faraone, S. V., Koyanagi, A., Dragioti, E., Radua, J., Carvalho, A. F., Il Shin, J., & Solmi, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Yonsei University (KR)
- Kyung Hee University Medical Center (KR)
- Samsung Medical Center (KR)
- Anglia Ruskin University (GB)
- Université Paris Cité (FR)
- Universidade de São Paulo (BR)
- Örebro University (SE)
- SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
- Linköping University (SE)
- Barwon Health (AU)
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Cortese, Samuele
- ORCID
- Venue
- Molecular Psychiatry
- Published
- 2023-09-08
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 4823-4830
- ISSN
- 1359-4184 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5578
- OpenAlex
- W4386545385
- Semantic Scholar
- f8b56283bc7766f77ad4bb43cb4db49c94786551
- Cited by
- 211
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 4
- FWCI
- 37.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Licence
- Locations
- Molecular Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
- INRIA a CCSD electronic archive server (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Bari Aldo Moro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, incidence, prevalence, global burden of disease, disability-adjusted life years, sex differences, age distribution, temporal trends, children and adolescents, low- and middle-income countries, sex ratio bias, missing data imputation, unnatural causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Global Burden of Disease, Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Male, Global Health, Incidence, Prevalence, Quality-Adjusted Life Years
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