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Cited by 108Advanced Memory and Neural ComputingNeural Networks and ApplicationsNeural Networks and Reservoir Computing

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Purely self-rectifying memristor-based passive crossbar array for artificial neural network accelerators

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Jeon, Kanghyeok, Ryu, Jin Joo, Im, Seongil, Seo, Hyun Kyu, Eom, Taeyong, Ju, Hyunsu, Yang, Min Kyu, Jeong, Doo Seok, Kim, Gun Hwan·2024·Nature Communications
DOI 10.1038/s41467-023-44620-1PMC PMC10761713
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Abstract

Memristor-integrated passive crossbar arrays (CAs) could potentially accelerate neural network (NN) computations, but studies on these devices are limited to software-based simulations owing to their poor reliability. Herein, we propose a self-rectifying memristor-based 1 kb CA as a hardware accelerator for NN computations. We conducted fully hardware-based single-layer NN classification tasks involving the Modified National Institute of Standards and Technology database using the developed passive CA, and achieved 100% classification accuracy for 1500 test sets. We also investigated the influences of the defect-tolerance capability of the CA, impact of the conductance range of the integrated memristors, and presence or absence of selection functionality in the integrated memristors on the image classification tasks. We offer valuable insights into the behavior and performance of CA devices under various conditions and provide evidence of the practicality of memristor-integrated passive CAs as hardware accelerators for NN applications.

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Fig. 1 CA device images and equipment for electrical performance. a SEM images of the 1 kb CA device. b Photographs of the electrical equipment used to characterize the CA devices. The equipment included a semiconductor parameter analyzer (SPA), CA probe station, CA switching zig, and CA probe card.
Fig. 1 CA device images and equipment for electrical performance. a SEM images of the 1 kb CA device. b Photographs of the electrical equipment used to characterize the CA devices. The equipment included a semiconductor parameter analyzer (SPA), CA probe station, CA switching zig, and CA probe card.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 Electrical characteristics of our 1 kb CA device. a Schematic of the CA utilizing a one-third biasing scheme during the DC I–V characterization. b DC I–V characteristics of 1024 cells in the CA. The black curve marked ① denotes the SET process, while the black curve marked ② denotes the RESET process. c Reading current distributions of each state. The coefficient of variations of the LRS and HRS were 0.057 and 0.06, respectively. d Schematic of the AC-based operations utilizing the biasing scheme. Inhibiting voltages were induced in the unselected cells and had a larger pulse width than the operational voltage. e Electrical pulse-induced behavior of 30 cells in the CA. f Amplitude distributions for the SET and RESET processes. Very low deviation values were observed in each process. The highly uniform electrical characteristics of the CA can be attributed to the nonfilamentary characteristics of our previously developed SRM device.
Fig. 2 Electrical characteristics of our 1 kb CA device. a Schematic of the CA utilizing a one-third biasing scheme during the DC I–V characterization. b DC I–V characteristics of 1024 cells in the CA. The black curve marked ① denotes the SET process, while the black curve marked ② denotes the RESET process. c Reading current distributions of each state. The coefficient of variations of the LRS and HRS were 0.057 and 0.06, respectively. d Schematic of the AC-based operations utilizing the biasing scheme. Inhibiting voltages were induced in the unselected cells and had a larger pulse width than the operational voltage. e Electrical pulse-induced behavior of 30 cells in the CA. f Amplitude distributions for the SET and RESET processes. Very low deviation values were observed in each process. The highly uniform electrical characteristics of the CA can be attributed to the nonfilamentary characteristics of our previously developed SRM device.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Overall hardware-based classification process. For hardware-based classification, a 32 × 30 array, representing a partial array of the 1 kb CA, was utilized. To classify the three digits (0, 1, and 2), the 32 × 30 array is partitioned into 10 sets of 32 × 3 matrices. Each column in a submatrix (32 × 1) indicated the three digits 0, 1, and 2. a The training and test (inference) datasets were processed by software simulation. By downscaling the MNIST data, originally consisting of 28 × 28 pixels, to 20 × 16 pixels to fit into the 32 × 30 array. To input the images into array for training and inference tasks, the down-sampled images were converted to 320 × 1 matrix and partitioned into 10 sets of 32 × 1 matrices. The training process was performed using the resized data in the software, and the trained data were converted into target conductance (resistance) values to obtain the distribution of trained weights. Based on these weight values, each cell in the 32 × 30 CA was programmed. b For the inferencing operations, the resized data were converted into 320 × 1 input vectors with binary values of 0 and 1. These input vectors were then converted into voltages and applied to the memristor matrix in 10 sets. The VMM operation was performed, and the maximum values from the 10 sets were classified as the outputs of the inferencing operations. The digit with the maximum output signal was classified according to the max-current sensing rule36.
Fig. 3 Overall hardware-based classification process. For hardware-based classification, a 32 × 30 array, representing a partial array of the 1 kb CA, was utilized. To classify the three digits (0, 1, and 2), the 32 × 30 array is partitioned into 10 sets of 32 × 3 matrices. Each column in a submatrix (32 × 1) indicated the three digits 0, 1, and 2. a The training and test (inference) datasets were processed by software simulation. By downscaling the MNIST data, originally consisting of 28 × 28 pixels, to 20 × 16 pixels to fit into the 32 × 30 array. To input the images into array for training and inference tasks, the down-sampled images were converted to 320 × 1 matrix and partitioned into 10 sets of 32 × 1 matrices. The training process was performed using the resized data in the software, and the trained data were converted into target conductance (resistance) values to obtain the distribution of trained weights. Based on these weight values, each cell in the 32 × 30 CA was programmed. b For the inferencing operations, the resized data were converted into 320 × 1 input vectors with binary values of 0 and 1. These input vectors were then converted into voltages and applied to the memristor matrix in 10 sets. The VMM operation was performed, and the maximum values from the 10 sets were classified as the outputs of the inferencing operations. The digit with the maximum output signal was classified according to the max-current sensing rule36.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 Fully hardware-based demonstration of a single-layer neural network for MNIST data classification and investigation of the impact of the defectiveness of the CA on the classification accuracy. a Trained weight-mapping results of the D0 CA. After the training process, all cells in the CA were read out at a 2 V reading voltage. b VMM operation results of the D0 CA focusing on three parameters: VMM operation results (red bars), trained weight summations (green circles), and simulated weight summations (blue circles). The discrepancy between the VMM operation results and calculated values indicates the feasibility of the VMM operation, while the difference between the VMM operation results and the simulated values indicates the training accuracy. c Experimental demonstration of the fully hardware-based classification of the MNIST data using the D0 CA. One of the classification results was showcased by following the max-current sensing rule. The classification result is indicated by the blue bars, which represent the maximum values of the sensed signals. d Trained weight-mapping results, (e) VMM results focusing on the three parameters described in (b), and (f) representative classification results of the D30 CA. While the digits 0 and 2 were classified correctly, the digit 1 was misclassified as 2. g Trained weight-mapping results, h VMM results focusing on the three parameters described in (b), and (i) representative classification results of the D50 CA. j Classification accuracy for each digit based on 1500 classifications. The classification accuracy of the D0, D30, and D50 CAs for each digit is shown from left to right. k Classification accuracies for each digit in different defective CAs and the total classification accuracy. The total accuracies for each defective CA indicated that 100% accuracy was achieved in the D0 CA. However, the accuracies decreased to 68.5% in the D30 CA and 49.8% in the D50 CA. These results demonstrate the practical impact of defects in the CA, particularly open-circuit defects, which significantly degrade the classification accuracy.
Fig. 4 Fully hardware-based demonstration of a single-layer neural network for MNIST data classification and investigation of the impact of the defectiveness of the CA on the classification accuracy. a Trained weight-mapping results of the D0 CA. After the training process, all cells in the CA were read out at a 2 V reading voltage. b VMM operation results of the D0 CA focusing on three parameters: VMM operation results (red bars), trained weight summations (green circles), and simulated weight summations (blue circles). The discrepancy between the VMM operation results and calculated values indicates the feasibility of the VMM operation, while the difference between the VMM operation results and the simulated values indicates the training accuracy. c Experimental demonstration of the fully hardware-based classification of the MNIST data using the D0 CA. One of the classification results was showcased by following the max-current sensing rule. The classification result is indicated by the blue bars, which represent the maximum values of the sensed signals. d Trained weight-mapping results, (e) VMM results focusing on the three parameters described in (b), and (f) representative classification results of the D30 CA. While the digits 0 and 2 were classified correctly, the digit 1 was misclassified as 2. g Trained weight-mapping results, h VMM results focusing on the three parameters described in (b), and (i) representative classification results of the D50 CA. j Classification accuracy for each digit based on 1500 classifications. The classification accuracy of the D0, D30, and D50 CAs for each digit is shown from left to right. k Classification accuracies for each digit in different defective CAs and the total classification accuracy. The total accuracies for each defective CA indicated that 100% accuracy was achieved in the D0 CA. However, the accuracies decreased to 68.5% in the D30 CA and 49.8% in the D50 CA. These results demonstrate the practical impact of defects in the CA, particularly open-circuit defects, which significantly degrade the classification accuracy.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Investigation of the impact of the read margin on classification accuracy. a DC I–V characteristics of the SRM-integrated CA, and (b) retention characteristics measured at a reading voltage of 1.7 V. Robust nonvolatility was observed at1.7 V. c Read current distributions of the LRS and HRS at 1.7 V. The coefficient of variations of the HRS and LRS (0.093 and 0.142, respectively) were relatively low. d Trained weight-mapping results obtained at a reading voltage of 1.7 V. e Comparison of the VMM operation results and calculated weight summations in each column. The feasibility of VMM operations using a 1.7 V reading voltage was confirmed. f Representative classification results of the CA under a 1.7 V reading voltage, and (g) total classification accuracy for each digit. All digits were classified accurately (1500 classification operations). Comparison of the two different reading margins (×50 @ 1.7 V and ×15 @ 2.0 V) revealed that the reading margin of the nonfilamentary-type memristor had an insignificant effect on the classification accuracy because of its highly uniform operating characteristics.
Fig. 5 Investigation of the impact of the read margin on classification accuracy. a DC I–V characteristics of the SRM-integrated CA, and (b) retention characteristics measured at a reading voltage of 1.7 V. Robust nonvolatility was observed at1.7 V. c Read current distributions of the LRS and HRS at 1.7 V. The coefficient of variations of the HRS and LRS (0.093 and 0.142, respectively) were relatively low. d Trained weight-mapping results obtained at a reading voltage of 1.7 V. e Comparison of the VMM operation results and calculated weight summations in each column. The feasibility of VMM operations using a 1.7 V reading voltage was confirmed. f Representative classification results of the CA under a 1.7 V reading voltage, and (g) total classification accuracy for each digit. All digits were classified accurately (1500 classification operations). Comparison of the two different reading margins (×50 @ 1.7 V and ×15 @ 2.0 V) revealed that the reading margin of the nonfilamentary-type memristor had an insignificant effect on the classification accuracy because of its highly uniform operating characteristics.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Investigation of the impacts of a non-selective memristor integrated into the passive CA on VMM operation accuracy. a DC I–V characteristics of a unit memristor device without selection functionality (left). Ten randomly chosen cells were measured over three cycles (total number of DC I–V curves: 30). The read current distributions of each state were extracted from the DC I–V curves (right). b DC I–V characteristics of an 8 × 8 CA integrated with the memristor. All cells in the CA were measured in one cycle in DC I–V sweep mode (graph). The read current distributions of each state were extracted from the DC I–V curve (right). c Programming scheme of the 8 × 8 CA. A total of 32 randomly chosen cells were programmed to the LRS (black), and the rest of the cells were maintained in the HRS (orange). d Resistance distribution of the 8 × 8 CA after the programming step. The programmed weight values of the CA were not coincident with the proposed programming scheme, indicating that programming and reading were not processed accurately owing to sneak current effects. e Results of VMM operations using the 8 × 8 CA. Nearly identical output currents were observed in each column, which implies that the VMM operation was not processed accurately because of significant interferences between integrated cells in the CA.
Fig. 6 Investigation of the impacts of a non-selective memristor integrated into the passive CA on VMM operation accuracy. a DC I–V characteristics of a unit memristor device without selection functionality (left). Ten randomly chosen cells were measured over three cycles (total number of DC I–V curves: 30). The read current distributions of each state were extracted from the DC I–V curves (right). b DC I–V characteristics of an 8 × 8 CA integrated with the memristor. All cells in the CA were measured in one cycle in DC I–V sweep mode (graph). The read current distributions of each state were extracted from the DC I–V curve (right). c Programming scheme of the 8 × 8 CA. A total of 32 randomly chosen cells were programmed to the LRS (black), and the rest of the cells were maintained in the HRS (orange). d Resistance distribution of the 8 × 8 CA after the programming step. The programmed weight values of the CA were not coincident with the proposed programming scheme, indicating that programming and reading were not processed accurately owing to sneak current effects. e Results of VMM operations using the 8 × 8 CA. Nearly identical output currents were observed in each column, which implies that the VMM operation was not processed accurately because of significant interferences between integrated cells in the CA.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 8

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Metadata

Authors
Jeon, K., Ryu, J. J., Im, S., Seo, H. K., Eom, T., Ju, H., Yang, M. K., Jeong, D. S., & Kim, G. H.
Affiliations
  • Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KR)
  • Yonsei University (KR)
  • Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KR)
  • Sahmyook University (KR)
  • Hanyang University (KR)
Corresponding author
  • Ju, Hyunsu
  • Yang, Min Kyu
  • Jeong, Doo Seok
  • Kim, Gun Hwan
ORCID
Venue
Nature Communications
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2024-01-02
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
129-129
ISSN
2041-1723 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41467-023-44620-1
PMC
PMC10761713
OpenAlex
W4390502105
Cited by
108
References
56
Citations by year
2026: 33 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 27
FWCI
11.17
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nature Communications (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (CR202104002)
  • Korea Institute of Science and Technology (2E32242)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Memory and Neural Computing
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Neural Networks and Applications
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Neural Networks and Reservoir Computing
Keywords
memristors, self-rectifying memristors, defect tolerance, image classification

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