AI will never convey the essence of human empathy

Comparing Physician and Artificial Intelligence Chatbot Responses to Patient Questions Posted to a Public Social Media Forum

Ayers, J. W., Poliak, A., Dredze, M., Leas, E. C., Zhu, Z., Kelley, J. B., Faix, D. J., Goodman, A. M., Longhurst, C. A., Hogarth, M., et al. (2023) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.1838 · Cited by 2,613

The neuroscience of empathy: Progress, pitfalls and promise

Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3085 · Cited by 1,231

Toward a hierarchical model of social cognition: A neuroimaging meta-analysis and integrative review of empathy and theory of mind.

Schurz, M., Raduà, J., Tholen, M. G., Maliske, L., Margulies, D. S., Mars, R. B., Sallet, J., & Kanske, P. (2020) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000303 · Cited by 702

Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot

Ho, A., Hancock, J., & Miner, A. S. (2018) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026 · Cited by 629

Empathy and Its Discontents

Bloom, P. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.004 · Cited by 477

In principle obstacles for empathic AI: why we can’t replace human empathy in healthcare

Montemayor, C., Halpern, J., & Fairweather, A. (2022) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-021-01230-z · Cited by 293

Motivated empathy: a social neuroscience perspective

Weisz, E., & Zaki, J. (2018) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.05.005 · Cited by 153

Computational Models of Emotion Inference in Theory of Mind: A Review and Roadmap

Ong, D. C., Zaki, J., & Goodman, N. D. (2018) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12371 · Cited by 132

Motivational effects on empathic choices

Ferguson, A. M., Cameron, C. D., & Inzlicht, M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104010 · Cited by 80

Artificial Empathy: An Interdisciplinary Investigation

Damiano, L., Dumouchel, P., & Lehmann, H. (2014) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-014-0259-6 · Cited by 23

A Scoping Review of the Ethical Perspectives on Anthropomorphising Large Language Model-Based Conversational Agents

Ferrario, A., Vinay, R., Casserini, M., & Facchini, A. (2026) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3805689.3812324 · Cited by 3

Opening Up to AI or Not: Compassion Mindsets Regulate the Intensity of Venting to AI Versus Human Friends

Zhai, J., & Zhang, J. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2707698 · Cited by 1

Empathy and clarity in GPT-4-Generated Emergency Department Discharge LettersPreprint

Ben-Haim, G., Livne, A., Manor, U., Hochstein, D., Saban, M., Blaier, O., Iram, Y. A., Balzam, M. G., Lutenberg, A., Eyade, R., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.10.07.24315034 · Cited by 1

Linguistic traces of stochastic empathy in language models

Kleinberg, B., Zegers, J., Festor, J., Vida, S., Präsent, J., Loconte, R., & Peereboom, S. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2410.01675 · Cited by 1

“It's not even close to being ready to replace anything”: the perception of AI use in youth mental health services (Preprint)Preprint

Ding, X., & Barbic, S. P. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.69449

The Next Frontier in Mindreading? Assessing Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI)’s Social-Cognitive Capabilities using Dynamic Audiovisual StimuliPreprint

Refoua, E., Elyoseph, Z., Wacker, R., Dziobek, I., Tsafrir, I., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5074696

Skill but not Effort Drive GPT Overperformance over Humans in Cognitive Reframing of Negative ScenariosPreprint

Li, J. Z., Herderich, A., Nair, P., & Goldenberg, A. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fzvd8_v1

How does turning to AI for companionship predict loneliness and vice versa?Preprint

Folk, D. P., & Dunn, E. W. (2025) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bq7v3_v2

Empathic Algorithm Collaboration: Decision Augmentation for Socially Consequential Decision-MakingPreprint

Ware, T., Lu, T., Raghu, T. S., & Shao, B. B. M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5373406

Editorial: Insights in emotion science

Dolcos, F., Kemp, A. H., & Hamm, A. O. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1643052

Evaluating the Efficacy of Large Language Models in Addressing Patient-Centric Inquiries in Multiple CancersPreprint

Borhani, S., & Jiang, X. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.08.05.25332968

More than Just Fair: Legitimizing Ai Through Reciprocity, Ethical Governance and Personal Information SharingPreprint

Hussain, S., Qazi, A., & Wilk, V. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5384390

Beyond Engagements: How Does Transparency Timing Shape the Value of AI-Driven Social Agents?Preprint

Chen, J., Yang, Y., Cao, Z., & Qiu, L. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5468927

Introductory Chapter: Paradox of Decoding Emotion in the Age of AI

Li, J. (2025) · Artificial intelligence · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1011172

The Impact of Generative AI on Student Identity Formation

Thibaud, E. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99804-1_19 · Cited by 1

M-AIDE: Mechanistic Agentic Interpretability for Decoding Empathy in Language Models

Mirnateghi, N., Tahir, S. A., Islam, S. M. S., & Shah, S. A. A. (2025) · International Conference on Image and Vision Computing New Zealand (IVCNZ) · doi:10.1109/ivcnz67716.2025.11281845

Troubles in wonderland: Reconsidering the differences between psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy in the age of AI

Ophir, Y. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08920-7 · Cited by 1

Technology or Market? How Innovation Drivers Shape Consumer Responses to AI-Designed Services

Liang, J., Zhu, Y., Chen, S., & Zhu, Y. (2026) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research · doi:10.1177/10963480261420341

Notes

Selinger, E. M., & Cahn, A. F. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009466592.012

Contextualizing private troubles and public issues

Northcut, T. B., & Kumaria, S. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197508404.003.0001

A Three-Layered Framework and Measurement Toolkit for Understanding Emotional and Relational Engagement with AI

Chen, C., Ren, H., Liu, J., Tian, F., & Wang, F. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2725999

The promise and pitfalls of AI-generated negative feedback on learning willingness: the moderating role of AI reliability cues

Zhong, R., Zhang, Y., & Liu, S. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-025-10105-6

Beyond western paradigms: a cross-cultural review of social–emotional competence frameworks and the promise of AI-driven assessment

Liu, Y., Ma, J., & Huang, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763245

Decoding and controlling emotion in LLMs through human-aligned representational geometry with enhanced interpretability

Wu, X., Wang, H., Yan, Z., Xiaohan, T., Xu, P., Siok, W. T., Li, P., Gao, J., Lyu, B., & Qin, L. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2026.109051

Notes

Vieira, L. N. (2026) · doi:10.1017/9781009769372.010

More than just fair: Legitimizing AI through reciprocity, ethical AI characteristics and personal information sharing

Hussain, S., Qazi, A., & Wilk, V. (2026) · Technovation · doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2026.103572

Human Nature and Artificial Intelligence: Sizing the Gap

Krzanowski, R. (2026) · Synthese Library/Synthese library · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-10073-3_16

When AI Gives Things a Voice

Cho, H. (2026) · KAIST research series · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-0537-0_1

Social Actors Becoming Rather than Being

Cho, H. (2026) · KAIST research series · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-0537-0_7

From doubt to trust: how AI safety voice bridges the gap between employees and AI teammates through perceived capability and benevolence

Qi, Z., Yan, Y., & Ren, P. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1804847

Navigating Trade-Offs in Support Preferences: Toward Supportive Communication Guidance for Help-Givers of Young People

Calambur, V., Young, J., Razi, A., & Huh, J. (2026) · ACM Transactions on Computing for Healthcare · doi:10.1145/3817048

AI Automatons: AI Systems Intended to Imitate Humans

Olteanu, A., Barocas, S., Blodgett, S. L., Egede, L., DeVrio, A., & Cheng, M. (2026) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3805689.3812377 · Cited by 20

Do Attachment Styles Shape ChatGPT Usage?

Wang, M., Li, J. X., Ngo, S., Davis, K. S., & Hiniker, A. (2026) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3805689.3812418 · Cited by 1

Ethical implications of high attrition in AI-based mental health interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Yang, H., Liu, J., Li, L., Jiang, R., Lou, Q., Sun, W., & Zhou, C. (2026) · BMC Medical Ethics · doi:10.1186/s12910-026-01510-7

Human-to-Human (H2H) Approach in AI-Driven Marketing

Moctezuma, N. P. B. (2026) · Developments in marketing science: proceedings of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-20132-4_27

How AI’s reporting Differs: Evidence of Themes, Emotions, and Representation of Social Actors

Chen, G., Sha, J.-L., & Liu, L. (2026) · Journalism Practice · doi:10.1080/17512786.2026.2700244

Chatbots and teenagers: the metaphor of dialogue in a new social reality

Volkova, E. (2026) · Social Psychology and Society · doi:10.17759/sps.2026170203

The unintended ethical cost: How and when AI-human cooperation is associated with unjust decisions

Jiang, L., Qin, X., Jiang, K., Chen, C., Dong, X., & Zheng, J. (2026) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2026.116362

Perspective Chapter: The Doctor–AI–Patient Dynamics

Kenig, N., & Vives, A. M. (2026) · Artificial intelligence · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1015263

Effects of AI disclosure in service recovery communication: The role of framing strategies

Gong, Y., Liu-Lastres, B., & Pan, B. (2026) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2026.104867

Do People Resist Empathizing with AI? Effects of Empathic Characteristics in AI-Based Emotional Service

Hao, Y., Sheng, Y., He, J., He, S., & Fu, Z. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2712099

A Very Human History of Artificial Empathy

Satran, S. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.003

Synthetic Support

Beattie, A. J., & High, A. C. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.007

Stories of Empathy

Berio, L. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.032

AI, Empathy, and Moral Status

Skorburg, J. A., & White, D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.029

Does It Take Two to Empathize?

Laurent, S. M., & Chung, I. S. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.005

AI and Empathy at a Crossroads

Cameron, C. D., & Perry, A. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.001

Understanding Empathy

Perry, A., & Cameron, C. D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.002

AI Should Develop Human Empathy, Not Replace It

Landes, E., & Everett, J. A. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.030

Contemporary AI and the Value of Empathy

Montemayor, C. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.025

Enhancing Human-Machine Cooperation through the Integration of Empathetic AI into Corporate Cybersecurity and Forensic Operations

Baltezarević, R., Wei, L.-W., Izgarević, D., & Azdejković, M. (2026) · International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science Engineering and Education · doi:10.23947/2334-8496-2026-14-2-373-384

Beyond Text: Embodiment and Robots

Perry, A., & Cameron, C. D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.016

What’s So Special about Human Empathy?

Wenger, J. D., Cameron, C. D., Orlandi, M., & Inzlicht, M. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.015 · Cited by 1

Perceiving AI Empathy

Perry, A., & Cameron, C. D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.009

Moral Implications

Perry, A., & Cameron, C. D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.024

From Social Media to Empathic Artificial Intelligence

Rodriguez, M., Motyl, M., & Schroeder, J. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009639057.023

A structured framework for human–AI resemblance: Evidence, inference and perception

Wang, P., Law, E. L., Zou, L., Jiang, Y., Hertwig, R., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Laureys, S. (2026) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2026.09.003

Dijital Empati ve Yapay Duygular

Tutal, B. (2026) · Özgür Yayınları eBooks · doi:10.58830/ozgur.pub1418.c5720

The paradox of pleasing: therapeutic recognition and the limits of conversational AI

Haber, Y., Refoua, E., Elyoseph, Z., & Yinon, D. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03348-4

Human interaction with artificial intelligence as a factor in professional loneliness

Sorokoumova, E. А., Кочнева, А. Ю., & Борисовна, П. Е. (2026) · Journal of Modern Foreign Psychology · doi:10.17759/jmfp.2026150304

Navigating AI affective support: The cognitive-affective pathway from appraisal to emotional well-being in learners

Zhong, W., Luo, J., Yu, S., Lyu, Y., & Guo, J. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105768

Empathy as a dyadic process

Genzer, S., & Perry, A. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00624-4 · Cited by 1

People offload empathy when they think AI can give it instead

Shastry, M., & Gray, K. J. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2026.109240

The paradox of agency in psychotherapy: How people with mental distress experience support from generative AI chatbots and human therapists

Dai, X., Leng, L. L., Liu, Y., Huang, Y., & Wong, D. F. K. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07671-w · Cited by 15

The Paradox of Agency in Psychotherapy: How People with Mental Distress Experience Generative AI and Human TherapistsPreprint

Dai, X., Leng, L. L., Liu, Y., Huang, Y., & Wong, D. F. K. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4fv56_v1

Emotional Support without Emotions: Can ChatGPT be a Good Therapist?Preprint

Kornienko, A. E. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6072527

Emotional Support Without Emotions: Therapeutic Non-Experiential Empathy in AI-TherapyPreprint

Kornienko, A. E. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6481302

Comparing perceived empathy and intervention strategies of an AI chatbot and human psychotherapists in online mental health support

Yonatan‐Leus, R., & Brukner, H. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12832 · Cited by 46