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Activity-dependent spinal cord neuromodulation rapidly restores trunk and leg motor functions after complete paralysis
Open accessAbstract
Epidural electrical stimulation (EES) targeting the dorsal roots of lumbosacral segments restores walking in people with spinal cord injury (SCI). However, EES is delivered with multielectrode paddle leads that were originally designed to target the dorsal column of the spinal cord. Here, we hypothesized that an arrangement of electrodes targeting the ensemble of dorsal roots involved in leg and trunk movements would result in superior efficacy, restoring more diverse motor activities after the most severe SCI. To test this hypothesis, we established a computational framework that informed the optimal arrangement of electrodes on a new paddle lead and guided its neurosurgical positioning. We also developed software supporting the rapid configuration of activity-specific stimulation programs that reproduced the natural activation of motor neurons underlying each activity. We tested these neurotechnologies in three individuals with complete sensorimotor paralysis as part of an ongoing clinical trial ( www.clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT02936453). Within a single day, activity-specific stimulation programs enabled these three individuals to stand, walk, cycle, swim and control trunk movements. Neurorehabilitation mediated sufficient improvement to restore these activities in community settings, opening a realistic path to support everyday mobility with EES in people with SCI.
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“However, this recovery required wearable motion sensors to detect motor intentions from residual movements or compensatory strategies to initiate the preprogrammed stimulation sequences5.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“He had previously participated in the STIMO clinical trial (clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02936453), which involved a five-month neurorehabilitation programme supported by targeted epidural electrical stimulation of the spinal cord4,5.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“The delivery of epidural electrical stimulation over the lumbar spinal cord has enabled many individuals with spinal cord injury to regain adaptive control over the activity of otherwise paralysed muscles.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“First, the physiological principles underlying targeted epidural electrical stimulation of the spinal cord have now been validated in nine out nine treated individuals with incomplete4 and complete5 injuries6.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“In turn, recruiting these dorsal root entry zones with preprogrammed spatiotemporal sequences replicates the physiological activation of leg motor pools underlying standing and walking4,5,11,13,14.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“In turn, optimized configurations of anodes and cathodes can steer electric fields towards specific subsets of dorsal root entry zones to modulate well-defined ensembles of motor neuron pools5,9,25.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“This programme enabled him to regain the ability to step with the help of a front-wheel walker.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“Indeed, we were able to configure stimulation programs that restored stepping within one day in three participants with complete sensorimotor paralysis5.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“This recovery has been documented in various independent studies, including in participants with complete sensorimotor paralysis5,6,30–34.”
From Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
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“The last three participants were implanted with a new paddle lead that was specifically developed to target the dorsal roots involved in the control of trunk and leg movements18 (ONWARD Medical).”
From The neurons that restore walking after paralysis (2022) · cites this paper as [18]
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PDMS-CNT composite for soft bioelectronic neuronal implants
Barshutina, M. N., Kirichenko, S. O., Wodolajsky, V. A., Lopachev, A. V., Barshutin, S. N., Gorsky, O. V., Deriabin, K. V., SUFIANOV, A. A., Bulgin, D. V., Islamova, R. M., et al. (2022) · Composites Part B Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110286 · Cited by 24
Mesbah, S., Herrity, A. N., Ugiliweneza, B., Angeli, C., Gerasimenko, Y., Boakye, M., & Harkema, S. J. (2022) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcac330 · Cited by 23
“This observation is in agreement with previous claims demonstrating that stimulation targeting the dorsal roots entry zones to the spinal cord can lead to better neuromodulation outcomes.(17,24)”
ResultMao, G., Zhou, Z., Su, H., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, C., Wang, Z., & Lü, X. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2023.3234580 · Cited by 24
“The recovery of motor function by ESCS also requires long-term and extensive rehabilitation training [15], [16], which may bring a heavy burden to the persons with SCI.”
BackgroundLai, B., Wu, R., Han, W., Bai, Y., Liu, J., Yu, H., Yang, S., Wang, L., Ren, J., Ding, Y., et al. (2023) · Biomaterials · doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122103 · Cited by 23
Nierula, B., Stephani, T., Bailey, E., Kaptan, M., Pohle, L.-M. G., Horn, U., Mouraux, A., Maeß, B., Villringer, A., Curio, G., et al. (2024) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3002828 · Cited by 23
“Relating to this, great strides have recently been made in the recovery of function after spinal cord injury and stroke via spinal neurostimulation [8,9,90,91].”
Neuroprotective effects of interleukin 10 in spinal cord injury
Li, J., Wang, P., Zhou, T., Jiang, W., Wu, H., Zhang, S., Deng, L., & Wang, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2023.1214294 · Cited by 25
“Various technologies have been developed to bridge the functional communication between the areas above and below the injury site, such as cell transplantation and epidural stimulation (Harkema et al., 2011; Curtis et al., 2018; Rowald et al., 2022).”
BackgroundLeahy, L. M., Woods, I., Gonzalez, J. G., Maughan, J., O’Connor, C., Stasiewicz, M., Kaur, K., Monaghan, M. G., Dervan, A. G., & O’Brien, F. J. (2024) · Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2024.07.015 · Cited by 22
Intracranial brain-computer interface spelling using localized visual motion response
Liu, D., Xu, X., Li, D., Li, J., Yu, X., Ling, Z., & Hong, B. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119363 · Cited by 23
Yu, H., Yang, S., Li, H., Wu, R., Lai, B., & Zheng, Q. (2023) · Neurospine · doi:10.14245/ns.2245184.296 · Cited by 23
Next-gen spinal cord injury clinical trials: lessons learned and opportunities for future success
Scheuren, P. S., & Kramer, J. L. K. (2024) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2024.105381 · Cited by 21
“Trials incorporating intensive, activity-based rehabilitation are evidenced in emerging neuromodulation studies (e.g., spinal cord stimulation), which have demonstrated encouraging preliminary results, 46 – 49 making them, effectively, combination therapies.”
BackgroundThe mechanisms of electrical neuromodulation
Balbinot, G. C., Milosevic, M., Morshead, C. M., Iwasa, S. N., Zariffa, J., Milosevic, L., Valiante, T. A., Hoffer, J. A., & Popović, M. R. (2024) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp286205 · Cited by 24
Li, N., Lu, C., Zhao, X., Gu, C., Chang, Y., & Feng, S. (2023) · Cell Death Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41420-023-01612-w · Cited by 21
“It causes impairment of neurological functions such as sensation and movement, and could even lead to temporary or permanent disability [2, 3 ] .”
BackgroundAdvancements in neuroregenerative and neuroprotective therapies for traumatic spinal cord injury
Fischer, G., Bättig, L., Stienen, M. N., Curt, A. E. P., Fehlings, M. G., & Hejrati, N. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1372920 · Cited by 24
Guo, J., Cao, J., Wu, J., & Gao, J. (2024) · Biomaterials Science · doi:10.1039/d4bm00959b · Cited by 20
Mensah, E. O., Chalif, J. I., Johnston, B. R., Chalif, E. J., Parker, T., Izzy, S., He, Z., Saigal, R., Fehlings, M. G., & Lu, Y. (2025) · North American Spine Society Journal (NASSJ) · doi:10.1016/j.xnsj.2025.100601 · Cited by 30
Augmenting rehabilitation robotics with spinal cord neuromodulation: A proof of concept
Hankov, N., Caban, M., Demesmaeker, R., Roulet, M., Komi, S., Xiloyannis, M., Gehrig, A., Varescon, C., Spiess, M. R., Maggioni, S., et al. (2025) · Science Robotics · doi:10.1126/scirobotics.adn5564 · Cited by 25
Self-citationAdvances and New Therapies in Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury
Montoto-Marqués, A., Benito-Penalva, J., Ferreiro-Velasco, M. E., Wright, M. A., de la Barrera, S. S., Kumru, H., Gaitán-Pérez, N., Hernández-Navarro, A., Rodríguez-Sotillo, A., Braga, F. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14072203 · Cited by 25
“Since then, eSCS has gained attention as a promising therapy for motor rehabilitation in SCI, enhancing recovery, voluntary movement, and functional independence [172–177].”
Matter, L., Harland, B. C., Raos, B. J., Svirskis, D. M., & Asplund, M. (2023) · APL Bioengineering · doi:10.1063/5.0152669 · Cited by 20
Harland, B. C., Matter, L., López, S. G., Fackelmeier, B., Hazelgrove, B., Meissner, S., O’Carroll, S. J., Raos, B. J., Asplund, M., & Svirskis, D. M. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60332-0 · Cited by 21
“Full, half, and non-stimulated electrodes exhibited similar delaminationdistributions, with 35%, 33%, and25%ofelectrodesassignedtoCategories4(morethanhalfthearea delaminated) and 5 (Fig.”
Shimizu, Y., Ntege, E. H., Takahara, E., Matsuura, N., Matsuura, R., Kamizato, K., Inoue, Y., Sowa, Y., & Sunami, H. (2024) · Regenerative Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.reth.2024.07.007 · Cited by 19
Mu, Z., Qin, J., Zhou, X., & Wang, K. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-75754-x · Cited by 18
“Rowald et al. 53 employed mechanical vibration on tendons to amplify muscle spindle afferent signals, thereby augmenting patient proprioceptive feedback, and subsequently monitored alterations in spinal cord oxygen levels.”
BackgroundMethodEpidural Electrical Stimulation for Functional Recovery in Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury
Ren, Y., Mo, L., Lu, J., Zhu, P., Yin, M., Jia, W., Liang, F., Han, X., & Zhao, J. (2025) · Cyborg and Bionic Systems · doi:10.34133/cbsystems.0314 · Cited by 18
“Rowald et al. [ 32 ] demonstrated that activity-specific EES rapidly enabled 3 SCI patients with complete sensorimotor paralysis to walk after surgery.”
Hayami, N., Williams, H. E., Shibagaki, K., Vette, A. H., Suzuki, Y., Nakazawa, K., Nomura, T., & Milosevic, M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2022.3183571 · Cited by 18
A Single Dermatome Clinical Prediction Rule for Independent Walking 1 Year After Spinal Cord Injury
Smith, A. C., Draganich, C., Thornton, W. A., Berliner, J. C., Lennarson, P. J., Rejc, E., Sevigny, M., Charlifue, S. W., Tefertiller, C., & Weber, K. A., II (2023) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2023.06.015 · Cited by 18
Kim, J. S., Kim, J., Lim, J. W., Kim, D. J., Lee, J. I., Choi, H., Kweon, H., Lee, J., Yee, H., Kim, J. H., et al. (2023) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c02637 · Cited by 18
Soft Bioelectronics for Neuroengineering: New Horizons in the Treatment of Brain Tumor and Epilepsy
Yoo, S., Kim, M.-J., Choi, C., Kim, D., & Cha, G. D. (2023) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.202303563 · Cited by 19
REPORT-SCS: minimum reporting standards for spinal cord stimulation studies in spinal cord injury
Malik, R. N., Samejima, S., Shackleton, C., Miller, T., Pedrocchi, A., Rabchevsky, A. G., Moritz, C. T., Darrow, D., Field-Fote, E. C., Guanziroli, E., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad2290 · Cited by 18
“Electrical spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a burgeoning approach for recovery of motor [10–17] and autonomic functions [18–30] in people with SCI. Implanted epidural spinal stimulation has long been used with approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration for treating neuropathic…”
Pain in the Context of Sensory Deafferentation
Cohen, S. P., Caterina, M. J., Yang, S.-Y., Socolovsky, M., & Sommer, C. (2024) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aln.0000000000004881 · Cited by 18
“Whereas neuromodulation can produce beneficial neuroplastic changes after CNS injuries associated with deafferentation, 192,193 the results of clinical trials for pain have been less auspicious.”
BackgroundSpinal maps of motoneuron activity during human locomotion: neuromechanical considerations
Avaltroni, P., Cappellini, G., Labini, F. S., Ivanenko, Y. P., & Lacquaniti, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2024.1389436 · Cited by 18
“Recent research has effectively used this approach using either epidural (Angeli et al., 2018; Hofstoetter et al., 2021; Rowald et al., 2022; Mesbah et al., 2023) or transcutaneous (Gerasimenko Y. P. et al., 2015; Sayenko et al., 2015; Solopova et al., 2017; Siu et al., 2022; Bryson et al., 2023)…”
BackgroundMethodDraganich, C., Weber, K. A., II, Thornton, W. A., Berliner, J. C., Sevigny, M., Charlifue, S. W., Tefertiller, C., & Smith, A. C. (2023) · Neurology Report · doi:10.1097/npt.0000000000000428 · Cited by 17
Angeli, C., & Gerasimenko, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2023.1073716 · Cited by 17
“There have been reports of individuals with motor complete SCI regaining the ability to walk and to improve stepping in the presence of scES (Angeli et al., 2018; Gill et al., 2018; Rowald et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSharma, P., Panta, T., Ugiliweneza, B., Bert, R. J., Gerasimenko, Y., Forrest, G. F., & Harkema, S. J. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12134416 · Cited by 20
“Studies on the use of epidural spinal cord stimulation have shown to be effective in recovering various physiological functions, such as voluntary activation of upper [5] and lower limb muscles [6], independent stepping [7,8], postural stability [9,10], and assisted ambulation in humans post SCI [11,12].”
BackgroundOh, J., Scheffler, M. S., Mahan, E. E., King, S. T., Martin, C. A., Dinh, J., Steele, A. G., O’Malley, M. K., & Sayenko, D. G. (2023) · Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation · doi:10.46292/sci23-00040s · Cited by 17
Zhao, P., Niu, Z., Zeng, C., Zhao, W. D., Leng, J., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Nano Energy · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110895 · Cited by 16
Tissue-like Bioelectronic Material Strategies for Personalized Closed-Loop Neuroprostheses
Kim, Y., Lee, H., Lee, J., Shin, M., & Son, D. (2025) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.5c07150 · Cited by 15
Balaguer, J.-M., Prat-Ortega, G., Ostrowski, J., Borda, L., Verma, N., Yadav, P., Sorensen, E., de Freitas, R., Ensel, S., Donadio, S., et al. (2025) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.08.023 · Cited by 17
Self-citationSpinal stimulation for motor rehabilitation immediately modulates nociceptive transmission
Bandres, M. F., Gomes, J. D. F., & McPherson, J. G. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac9a00 · Cited by 16
Singh, R. E., Ahmadi, A., Parr, A. M., Samadani, U., Krassioukov, A. V., Netoff, T. I., & Darrow, D. (2023) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-023-01164-1 · Cited by 19
Ciotti, F., Cimolato, A., Valle, G., & Raspopović, S. (2023) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011184 · Cited by 16
Bridging the gap: a translational perspective in spinal cord injury
Hassan, O. I., Takamiya, S., Asgarihafshejani, A., & Fehlings, M. G. (2024) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.3389/ebm.2024.10266 · Cited by 16
de Seta, V., & Romeni, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2025.1569148 · Cited by 18
Woods, J. E., Alrashdan, F. T., Chen, E. C., Tan, W., John, M. M., Jaworski, L. M., Bernard, D., Post, A., Moctezuma-Ramirez, A., Elgalad, A., et al. (2025) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-025-01489-3 · Cited by 20
Spinal cord bioelectronic interfaces: opportunities in neural recording and clinical challenges
Jiang, L., Woodington, B. J., Carnicer‐Lombarte, A., Malliaras, G. G., & Barone, D. G. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac605f · Cited by 14
“Until a robust strategy to generate stop signals can be developed, users of neuroprosthetics for motor restoration should limit their activities to safe environments, relying on user-controlled interfaces such as smartwatches [320] to start and stop movement algorithms.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Rowald, A., Komi, S., Demesmaeker, R., Baaklini, E., Hernandez-Charpak, S. D., Paoles, E., Montanaro, H., Cassara, A., Becce, F., Lloyd, B., Newton, T., Ravier, J., Kinany, N., D’Ercole, M., Paley, A., Hankov, N., Varescon, C., McCracken, L., Vat, M., Caban, M., Watrin, A., Jacquet, C., Bole-Feysot, L., Harte, C., Lorach, H., Galvez, A., Tschopp, M., Herrmann, N., Wacker, M., Geernaert, L., Fodor, I., Radevich, V., Van Den Keybus, K., Eberle, G., Pralong, E., Roulet, M., Ledoux, J.-B., Fornari, E., Mandija, S., Mattera, L., Martuzzi, R., Nazarian, B., Benkler, S., Callegari, S., Greiner, N., Fuhrer, B., Froeling, M., Buse, N., Denison, T., Buschman, R., Wende, C., Ganty, D., Bakker, J., Delattre, V., Lambert, H., Minassian, K., van den Berg, C. A. T., Kavounoudias, A., Micera, S., Van De Ville, D., Barraud, Q., Kurt, E., Kuster, N., Neufeld, E., Capogrosso, M., Asboth, L., Wagner, F. B., Bloch, J., & Courtine, G.
- Affiliations
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CH)
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (CH)
- Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna (IT)
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Medtronic (United States) (US)
- Technical University of Munich (DE)
- Medical University of Vienna (AT)
- Radboud University Medical Center (NL)
- University of Fribourg (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Bloch, Jocelyne
- Courtine, Grégoire
- ORCID
- Rowald, Andreas
- Komi, Salif
- Demesmaeker, Robin
- Baaklini, Edeny
- Hernandez-Charpak, Sergio Daniel
- Montanaro, Hazael
- Cassara, Antonino
- Becce, Fabio
- Lloyd, Bryn
- Newton, Taylor
- Kinany, Nawal
- Hankov, Nicolas
- Varescon, Camille
- McCracken, Laura
- Caban, Miroslav
- Lorach, Henri
- Fodor, Isabelle
- Eberle, Grégoire
- Ledoux, Jean-Baptiste
- Fornari, Eleonora
- Mandija, Stefano
- Martuzzi, Roberto
- Nazarian, Bruno
- Callegari, Simone
- Greiner, Nathan
- Fuhrer, Benjamin
- Froeling, Martijn
- Buschman, Rik
- Minassian, Karen
- Kavounoudias, Anne
- Micera, Silvestro
- Van De Ville, Dimitri
- Barraud, Quentin
- Kurt, Erkan
- Kuster, Niels
- Neufeld, Esra
- Capogrosso, Marco
- Asboth, Leonie
- Wagner, Fabien B.
- Bloch, Jocelyne
- Courtine, Grégoire
- Venue
- Nature Medicine
- Published
- 2022-02
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 260-271
- ISSN
- 1078-8956 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-170X
- OpenAlex
- W4210917455
- Cited by
- 455
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 83 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 93 · 2022: 72
- FWCI
- 62.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- dspace.library.uu.nl
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- IRIS (submittedVersion)
- mediaTUM – the media and publications repository of the Technical University Munich (Technical University Munich) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- SERVAL (Université de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Spinal Cord Injury Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery
- Keywords
- epidural stimulation, spinal cord injury, complete paralysis, dorsal root stimulation, neurorehabilitation, swimming, standing
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Leg, Paralysis, Spinal Cord, Spinal Cord Injuries, Walking, Spinal Cord Stimulation
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