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Unified rational protein engineering with sequence-based deep representation learning
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Abstract
Rational protein engineering requires a holistic understanding of protein function. Here, we apply deep learning to unlabeled amino-acid sequences to distill the fundamental features of a protein into a statistical representation that is semantically rich and structurally, evolutionarily and biophysically grounded. We show that the simplest models built on top of this unified representation (UniRep) are broadly applicable and generalize to unseen regions of sequence space. Our data-driven approach predicts the stability of natural and de novo designed proteins, and the quantitative function of molecularly diverse mutants, competitively with the state-of-the-art methods. UniRep further enables two orders of magnitude efficiency improvement in a protein engineering task. UniRep is a versatile summary of fundamental protein features that can be applied across protein engineering informatics.
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“They also learn summary representations, powerful features that can be used to better capture sequence relationships and link sequence to function via transfer learning 27,28,32-35.”
From Learning the protein language: Evolution, structure, and function (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Since then, various language model-based protein embedding methods have been applied to these and other protein prediction problems through transfer learning, including protein phenotype prediction 28,32-34, residue-residue contact prediction 32,70, fold recognition 33, protein-protein 71,72 and protein-drug interaction prediction 35,73.”
From Learning the protein language: Evolution, structure, and function (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“In recent years, deep learning architectures that were originally developed for natural language processing (NLP) tasks, such as translating a sentence from one language into another, have been applied successfully to the creation of numerical protein representations from amino acid sequences 17 , 29 .”
From Turnover number predictions for kinetically uncharacterized enzymes using machine and deep learning (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“These fingerprints are used together with a 1900-dimensioanl enzyme representation, called UniRep vector 29 , as the input for a gradient boosted decision tree model 34 to predict the K M value for an enzyme-substrate pair.”
From Turnover number predictions for kinetically uncharacterized enzymes using machine and deep learning (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
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A computational walk to the hidden peaks of protein performance
Billerbeck, S. (2021) · Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1093/synbio/ysab011 · Cited by 1
“Instead of learning the fitness landscape of an individual protein from experimental data, they first built a deep learning algorithm that extracts the fundamental features of all functional proteins from the >20 million available unlabeled amino-acid sequences in the UniREF database (7).”
BackgroundApplication of Protein Language Models to low-N Engineering of metalloproteinase inhibitors
Buxton, E. K., Patel, R., Toumaian, M. R., & Raeeszadeh‐Sarmazdeh, M. (2021) · International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI) · doi:10.1109/csci54926.2021.00048 · Cited by 1
“[1] pre-trained an autoregressive bidirectional LSTM language model,called Unirep, on 24M protein sequences from Uniref50 .”
BackgroundMethodQin, X., Liu, M., & Liu, G. (2023) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107571 · Cited by 2
Sui, J., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Iwamori, N., & Sun, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark · doi:10.31083/j.fbl2812322 · Cited by 1
“In this study, three feature extraction methods, namely SeqVec [18] based on the ELMO model, TAPE [19] based on the BERT model, and ProSE [20] based on a pre-trained multi-task language model, were employed to extract features from peroxisomal protein sequences.”
MethodXiang, X., Gao, J., & Ding, Y. (2023) · Journal of Computational Biology · doi:10.1089/cmb.2023.0097 · Cited by 1
“Alley et al. (2019) proposed a protein sequence coding method based on deep learning.”
Liu, T., Song, C., & Wang, C. (2023) · Mathematical Biosciences & Engineering · doi:10.3934/mbe.2024063 · Cited by 1
“(4) The UniRep model contains a layer of multiplicative LSTM with 1900 hidden units, which was trained on the UniRef50 database [20].”
MethodDeep learning-powered enzyme efficiency boosting with evolutionary information
Woodard, J. C., & Huang, X. (2024) · 中国科学通报:英文版 · doi:10.1016/j.scib.2024.03.034 · Cited by 1
Ueki, T., & Ohue, M. (2023) · Congress in Computer Science, Computer Engineering, and Applied Computing (CSCE) · doi:10.1109/csce60160.2023.00350 · Cited by 1
“Therefore, they are unsuitable for designing mutations in sequences with high variabilities, such as CDR or sequences without experimental data [5]–[7].”
BackgroundConcluding remarks: Faraday Discussion on data-driven discovery in the chemical sciences
Cooper, A. I. (2024) · Faraday Discussions · doi:10.1039/d4fd00174e · Cited by 1
Mialland, A., Fukunaga, S., Katsuki, R., Dong, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Saitō, Y. (2026) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btag415 · Cited by 1
“S8 , S12, available as supplementary data at Bioinformatics online) and had the second biggest improvement.”
Zhou, Z., Yu, Y., Yang, C., Cao, L., Zhang, S., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Han, H., Shi, G., Zhang, Q., et al. (2025) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpha.2025.101302 · Cited by 1
Zhang, Z., Zhou, Y., Zheng, J. X., Feng, C.-M., Cui, S. R., Wang, S., & Li, Z. (2025) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2025.110607 · Cited by 2
Speaking to nature: a deep learning representational model of proteins ushers in protein linguistics
Bojar, D. (2019) · Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1093/synbio/ysz013 · Cited by 1
Wang, Q., Wei, J., Wang, B., Li, Z., Wang, S., & Cui, S. R. (2021) · International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.24963/ijcai.2021/490 · Cited by 1
A Review of Protein Structure Prediction using Deep Learning
Susanty, M., Rajab, T. L. E., & Hertadi, R. (2021) · BIO Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/bioconf/20214104003 · Cited by 1
SeBPPI: A Sequence-Based Protein–Protein Binding Predictor
Wang, B., Mao, J. W., Wei, M., Qi, Y., & Zhang, J. Z. H. (2022) · Journal of Computational Biophysics and Chemistry · doi:10.1142/s2737416522500314 · Cited by 1
Ao, Y., Pei, S., Xiang, C., Menke, M. J., Shen, L. F., Sun, C., Dörr, M., Born, S., Höhne, M., & Bornscheuer, U. T. (2023) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202301660 · Cited by 1
Ong, W. S. Y., Ji, K., Pathiranage, V., Maydew, C., Baek, K., Villones, R. L. E., Meloni, G., Walker, A. R., & Dodani, S. C. (2023) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202302304 · Cited by 1
A Hierarchical Approach to Scaling Batch Active Search Over Structured DataPreprint
Myers, V., & Greenside, P. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2007.10263 · Cited by 1
Zhang, X., Luo, J., Cai, Y., Zhu, W., Yang, X., Cai, H., & Lin, Z. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.08.12.247312 · Cited by 1
SidechainNet: An All-Atom Protein Structure Dataset for Machine LearningPreprint
King, J. E., & Koes, D. R. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.08162 · Cited by 1
“In addition to the dominance of the AlphaFold deep learning method in the 2018 Critical Assessment of protein Structure Prediction (CASP) competition [1, 2, 3], many novel deep learning-based methods have been developed for protein representation [4, 5], property prediction [6, 7], and structure prediction [8, 9, 10,…”
MethodCaceres‐Delpiano, J., Ibañez, R., Correa, S., Dunne, M. P., Retamal, P. A., & Álvarez, L. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.06.29.450401 · Cited by 1
In silico protein science: from sequence to network
Marrero, M. C. (2021) · doi:10.18174/547092 · Cited by 1
Energetic basis of excited-state enzyme design and functionPreprint
Lin, C., Romei, M. G., Mathews, I. I., & Boxer, S. G. (2021) · doi:10.33774/chemrxiv-2021-9l2vn-v2 · Cited by 1
Drug design and repurposing with a sequence-to-drug paradigmPreprint
Chen, L., Fan, Z., Chang, J., Yang, R., Guo, H., Zhang, Y., Yang, T., Zhou, C., Chen, Z., Zheng, C., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.03.26.485909 · Cited by 1
Energetic basis of excited-state enzyme design and functionPreprint
Lin, C., Romei, M. G., Mathews, I. I., & Boxer, S. G. (2021) · doi:10.33774/chemrxiv-2021-9l2vn · Cited by 1
OrganelX Web Server for Sub-Peroxisomal and Sub-Mitochondrial protein localisationPreprint
Anteghini, M., Haja, A., dos Santos, V. A. P. M., Schomaker, L., & Saccenti, E. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.21.497045 · Cited by 1
“The three classification algorithms start representing the sequence as a concatenation of two deep learning-based sequence embeddings, namely UniRep and Seqvec [9, 10].”
BackgroundMethodProtein Redesign and Engineering Using Machine Learning
Basit, Z., Akram, H., Iqbal, M. M., Muhammad, G., Aslam, M., Gul, I., Jamil, M., & Tahir, M. H. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394167258.ch9 · Cited by 1
Domain loss enabled evolution of novel functions in a gene superfamilyPreprint
Koludarov, I., Senoner, T., Jackson, T., Dashevsky, D., Heinzinger, M., Aird, S. D., & Rost, B. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.15.520616 · Cited by 1
A robust deep learning platform to predict CD8+ T-cell epitopesPreprint
Lee, C. H.-J., Huh, J., Buckley, P. R., Jang, M., Pinho, M. P., Fernandes, R. A., Antanaviciute, A., Simmons, A., & Koohy, H. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.29.522182 · Cited by 1
Gene Mutagenesis Methods in Directed Evolution and Rational Enzyme Design
Reetz, M. T., Sun, Z., & Qu, G. (2023) · Enzyme Engineering · doi:10.1002/9783527836895.ch3 · Cited by 1
Co-evolution integrated deep learning framework for variants generation and fitness predictionPreprint
Tan, X. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.01.28.526023 · Cited by 1
Unraveling codon usage of Escherichia coli using machine learningPreprint
Huang, B., Hu, Y., Chen, X., & Lin, S. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.02.07.527422 · Cited by 1
“The problem is how to describe the codon usage, or which model shall be used. protein engineering, and protein structure prediction (Zhong et al., 2021, Alley et al., 2019, Jumper et al., 2021, Baek et al., 2021).”
BackgroundProtein language model-based end-to-end type II polyketide prediction without sequence alignmentPreprint
Huang, J., Gao, Q., Tang, Y., Wu, Y., Zhang, H., & Qin, Z. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.04.18.537339 · Cited by 1
“However, the above and other (7-9) methods frequently rely 50 on multiple sequence alignments, which are time-consuming and do not effectively 51 represent protein structural information (10, 11).”
BackgroundAnteghini, M., dos Santos, V. A. P. M., & Saccenti, E. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.06.30.547177 · Cited by 1
“In this work, we aim to benchmark and compare the most commonly used DL-based embeddings [14, 15, 13] for predicting PPIs solely based on protein sequence information, relying on high quality training data (that includes experimentally validated negative protein-protein interactions).”
BackgroundMethodOpinion piece/Book chapter: Artificial Intelligence learns protein predictionPreprint
Heinzinger, M., & Rost, B. (2023) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/n7wfp · Cited by 1
Volzhenin, K., Bittner, L., & Carbone, A. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.19.558413 · Cited by 1
“PLMs have demonstrated tremendous potential for a broad range of protein-related problems, such as predicting 3D shapes, interactions, mutational outcomes, and subcellular localizations [42, 1, 15, 40].”
BackgroundArtificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
O’Brien, M. J., Sng, L. M. F., Ramarao-Milne, P., Didi, K., & Bauer, D. C. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95502-7.00108-1 · Cited by 1
Protein Language Models in Directed EvolutionPreprint
Maguire, R. G., Bloznelyte, K., Adepoju, F., Armean-Jones, M., Dewan, S., Fozzard, S., Goddard, S. E., Gupta, A. K., Ibrahimi, E., Jones, F. P., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.08.20.608752 · Cited by 1
“…of reference sequences (Suzek et al., 2015) to predict next or masked amino acids, learning the distribution of amino acids in context: UniRep (Alley et al., 2019) is a single-sequence recurrent neural network; ESM1b (Rives et al., 2021) is a single-sequence transformer encoder; and MSA…”
BackgroundProtein Structure Prediction Using Convolutional Neural Networks Augmented with Cellular Automata
Sree, P. K., Chakrabarti, P., Margala, M., & Devi, N. S. U. (2024) · Computational Intelligence · doi:10.1002/9781394214259.ch7 · Cited by 1
Recombinant DNA Technology in the Improvement of Microbial Enzyme Production
Udhayakumar, M., Jeyasundar, P. G. S. A., Das, M. P. A., Azeem, M., Mani, V. M., & Ayswaria, R. (2024) · doi:10.1002/9783527844340.ch37 · Cited by 1
AlignAb: Pareto-Optimal Energy Alignment for Designing Nature-Like AntibodiesPreprint
Wen, Y., Xu, C., Hu, J. Y.-C., & Liu, H. (2025) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/ovbkgz · Cited by 1
Protein Language Model Identifies Disordered, Conserved Motifs Driving Phase SeparationPreprint
Zhang, Y., Zheng, J., & Zhang, B. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.105309.1 · Cited by 1
SSAlign: fast and sensitive protein structure search at scale
Wang, L., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., & Xue, Z. (2026) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1101/2025.07.03.662911 · Cited by 1
Modality-chain reasoning enables multimodal protein modelling and designPreprint
Liu, C., Chao, L., Ji, S., Wang, H., Zhou, G., Zheng, J. X., Hong, D., Guo, Y., Jiang, T., Gao, Z., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.07.21.665832 · Cited by 2
“Sequence-based models, including the ESM family 7,8 , have learned representations that support diverse tasks such as structure prediction, mutation-effect estimation and function annotation 7–9 .”
Protein Language Model Identifies Disordered, Conserved Motifs Implicated in Phase SeparationPreprint
Zhang, Y., Zheng, J., & Zhang, B. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.105309.2 · Cited by 1
Pretrained protein language models choose between sequence novelty and structural completenessPreprint
Subramanian, A. M., Martinez, Z. A., & Thomson, M. W. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.01.679905 · Cited by 1
“Treating proteins as amino-acid ”texts,” PLMs internalize knowledge about sequence determinants within natural proteins, and implicitly learn features of structure and function including α -helical vs β -strand content, residue-wise contact maps, and binding/active sites [6–8].”
Decoding the physicochemical basis of taxonomy preferences in protein design modelsPreprint
Dillon, L. B., Maiwald, A., & Crook, O. M. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.21.683350 · Cited by 1
“To design new proteins, researchers modified existing structures through rational design and directed evolution, or relied on computationally expensive physics-based energy functions [7–12].”
How Much Does Protein Structure Really Help? A Case Study in Mutation-Induced Stability PredictionPreprint
Moldwin, A., & Shehu, A. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.22.694225 · Cited by 1
“[4 –7] Yet the prevailing architectural paradigm for protein prediction tasks where knowledge suggest three-dimensional (3D) protein structure is important combines PLM embed-42 dings with explicit 3D structure and auxiliary biochemical features, reflecting a widespread intu-43 ition: PLMs lack…”
Fast, accurate construction of multiple sequence alignments from protein language embeddingsPreprint
Hoang, M., Armour-Garb, I., & Singh, M. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.02.697423 · Cited by 1
“For each model, ARIES SP scores on BAliBASE are computed when representing amino acids using concatenations of the last ℓ PLM layer embeddings, with ℓ ∈ [1 , 3 , 6 , 9 , 12].”
Benabbas, A., Kearns, P., Billo, A., Chisholm, L. O., & Plesa, C. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.01.706892 · Cited by 1
Bülbül, E. F., Bang, S., George, K., Bianchi, G., Raj, P., Chung, S., Pauline, V., Hochstrasser, R., Minas, H. A., Elgaher, W. A. M., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.03.709401 · Cited by 2
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“Trained on large ensembles of protein sequences, they learn sequence representations that encode structural and functional signals (1–12), and have advanced the prediction of protein structure (9, 10), subcellular localization (13), and mutational effects (14, 15).”
Fixed-Length Protein Embeddings using Contextual LensesPreprint
Shanehsazzadeh, A., Belanger, D., & Dohan, D. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.15065
“However, they did not find that performance on the language modeling task correlates strongly with downstream performance, which is a key motivating result from NLP. RNN protein language models were developed by Alley et al. [1] and by Bepler et al. [3].”
Accurate computational evolution of proteins and its dependence on deep learningPreprint
Narayanan, P. S., & Runthala, A. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2106.01951
“For extracting the underlying functionally crucial features of a protein, Ethan’s group has deployed deep learning methodology in their methodologies for explaining the structural, biophysical and evolutionary relationships within the protein sequences [45].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialProtein matchmaking through representation learning
Heinzinger, M., Dallago, C., & Rost, B. (2021) · Cell Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cels.2021.09.007
Dong, T. N., Brogden, G., Gerold, G., & Khosla, M. (2021) · Institutional Repository of Leibniz Universität Hannover (Leibniz Universität Hannover) · doi:10.15488/12212
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Ataş, H., & Doğan, T. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.05.01.490207
Faculty Opinions recommendation of Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold.
Arulanandam, A. J. (2021) · Faculty Opinions – Post-Publication Peer Review of the Biomedical Literature · doi:10.3410/f.740477161.793587548
Faculty Opinions recommendation of Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold.
Chakraborty, S. (2021) · Faculty Opinions – Post-Publication Peer Review of the Biomedical Literature · doi:10.3410/f.740477161.793587538
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Predicting Drug-Target Interactions Binding Affinity by Using Dual Updating Multi-task Learning
Shi, C., Lin, S., Chen, J., Wang, M., & Gao, Q. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-4549-6_6
Ouellet, S., Ferguson, L., Lau, A. Z., & Lim, T. K. Y. (2022) · doi:10.1101/2022.09.17.508377
Peer Review #2 of "Using genetic programming to predict and optimize protein function (v0.1)"
(2022) · PeerJ Physical Chemistry · doi:10.7287/peerj-pchem.24v0.1/reviews/2
Peer Review #1 of "Using genetic programming to predict and optimize protein function (v0.1)"
(2022) · PeerJ Physical Chemistry · doi:10.7287/peerj-pchem.24v0.1/reviews/1
META ANALISIS PENELITIAN TEKNIK INFORMATIKA
Supriyadi, E., Hermawanto, A. R., Siahaan, J., & Gusdevi, H. (2022) · Naratif Jurnal Nasional Riset Aplikasi dan Teknik Informatika · doi:10.53580/naratif.v4i2.166
Computational Approaches for Peroxisomal Protein Localization
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Protein Engineering for Thermostability through Deep EvolutionPreprint
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Metadata
- Authors
- Alley, E. C., Khimulya, G., Biswas, S., AlQuraishi, M., & Church, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Church, George M.
- Venue
- Nature Methods
- Published
- 2019-10-21
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1315-1322
- ISSN
- 1548-7091 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-7105
- PMC
- PMC7067682
- OpenAlex
- W2980789587
- Cited by
- 1,131
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 130 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 201 · 2023: 197 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 159 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 17
- FWCI
- 35.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Methods (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Amazon Web Services Cloud Credits for Research
- Center for Effective Altruism
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (T32HG002295, U54-CA225088)
- National Science Foundation GRFP Fellowship
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P50GM107618)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Protein Structure and Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Keywords
- rational protein design, protein stability prediction, de novo protein design, protein mutants, recurrent neural networks, protein function prediction
- MeSH terms
- Deep Learning, Amino Acid Sequence, Mutation, Protein Engineering, Protein Stability
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