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Unified rational protein engineering with sequence-based deep representation learning
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Abstract
Rational protein engineering requires a holistic understanding of protein function. Here, we apply deep learning to unlabeled amino-acid sequences to distill the fundamental features of a protein into a statistical representation that is semantically rich and structurally, evolutionarily and biophysically grounded. We show that the simplest models built on top of this unified representation (UniRep) are broadly applicable and generalize to unseen regions of sequence space. Our data-driven approach predicts the stability of natural and de novo designed proteins, and the quantitative function of molecularly diverse mutants, competitively with the state-of-the-art methods. UniRep further enables two orders of magnitude efficiency improvement in a protein engineering task. UniRep is a versatile summary of fundamental protein features that can be applied across protein engineering informatics.
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“They also learn summary representations, powerful features that can be used to better capture sequence relationships and link sequence to function via transfer learning 27,28,32-35.”
From Learning the protein language: Evolution, structure, and function (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Since then, various language model-based protein embedding methods have been applied to these and other protein prediction problems through transfer learning, including protein phenotype prediction 28,32-34, residue-residue contact prediction 32,70, fold recognition 33, protein-protein 71,72 and protein-drug interaction prediction 35,73.”
From Learning the protein language: Evolution, structure, and function (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“In recent years, deep learning architectures that were originally developed for natural language processing (NLP) tasks, such as translating a sentence from one language into another, have been applied successfully to the creation of numerical protein representations from amino acid sequences 17 , 29 .”
From Turnover number predictions for kinetically uncharacterized enzymes using machine and deep learning (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“These fingerprints are used together with a 1900-dimensioanl enzyme representation, called UniRep vector 29 , as the input for a gradient boosted decision tree model 34 to predict the K M value for an enzyme-substrate pair.”
From Turnover number predictions for kinetically uncharacterized enzymes using machine and deep learning (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
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Identification of plant vacuole proteins by using graph neural network and contact maps
Sui, J., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Iwamori, N., & Sun, J. (2023) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/s12859-023-05475-x · Cited by 3
“This model utilized the deep learning embedding methods UniRep [30] and SeqVec [31] to extract the properties of peroxisomal proteins.”
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EGGNet, a Generalizable Geometric Deep Learning Framework for Protein Complex Pose Scoring
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Karakoltzidis, A., Karakitsios, S., & Sarigiannis, D. A. (2025) · NAM journal. · doi:10.1016/j.namjnl.2025.100012 · Cited by 3
“However, upon incorporating enzyme representations — utilizing the model by Alley et al. (2019) for enzyme representations — the performance improved, achieving an R-squared of 0.45 on unseen data points.”
InfluentialLeveraging pretrained deep protein language model to predict peptide collision cross section
Nakai-Kasai, A., Ogata, K., Ishihama, Y., & Tanaka, T. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1038/s42004-025-01540-z · Cited by 4
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Vinod, R., Amini, A. P., Crawford, L. A., & Yang, K. (2026) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013925 · Cited by 2
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Li, J., Wu, Y., Li, Y., Ji, X., & Zheng, B. (2021) · Chinese Control Conference (CCC) · doi:10.23919/ccc52363.2021.9549853 · Cited by 3
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BackgroundSIPF: Sampling Method for Inverse Protein Folding
Fu, T., & Sun, J. (2022) · ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) · doi:10.1145/3534678.3539284 · Cited by 3
“There is also a parallel research line on (unconditional) amino acid sequence learning, including protein sequence representation learning [2, 5, 6, 17, 18, 26] and protein sequence generation [1, 21, 24, 27, 34, 36, 39].”
BackgroundMethodR-PCR: Recurrent Point Cloud Registration Using High-Order Markov Decision
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“Machine learning (ML) applications to individual macromolecule classes, such as proteins, have been very successful but typically rely on sequence-based representations that effectively capture structures with linear architectures (Schissel et al., 2021; Alley et al., 2019).”
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“Key traditional approaches include: • Rational Design 12 focused on introducing specific mutations into proteins based on known structural and functional insights.”
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Nishimura, T., Tsuboyama, K., Nakagaki, Y., Yamamoto, E., & Mizushima, N. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.01.05.627504 · Cited by 3
SENSE-PPI reconstructs interactomes within, across, and between species at the genome scale
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“Another way of introducing the latent information from a large number of unlabelled sequences into the preprocessing step is described in [7], where the eUniRep protein sequence encoding method is presented (as an enhancement to the previously introduced UniRep [10]).”
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Protein language models enable accurate viral host range prediction
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GeoAB: Towards Realistic Antibody Design and Reliable Affinity MaturationPreprint
Lin, H., Wu, L., Huang, Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, O., Zhou, Y., Sun, R., & Li, S. Z. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.15.594274 · Cited by 2
“Deep-learning-based methods concentrated on 1D sequence de-sign (Alley et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020; Saka et al., 2021; Akbar et al., 2022), and then, thanks to great process in graph neural networks (Wu et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2023) and protein modeling (Huang et al., 2023; Wu…”
MethodYe, Q., li, J., Chen, X., Huang, H., Zeng, M., Yu, J., & Gong, X. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4647798/v1 · Cited by 2
Cordoba-Novoa, H. A., Buckler, E. S., Romay, M. C., Berthel, A., Johnson, L., Balasubramanian, P. M., & Hoyos‐Villegas, V. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.05.05.652309 · Cited by 2
GOLF: A Generative AI Framework for Pathogenicity Prediction of Myocilin OLF VariantsPreprint
Walton, T., Tsui, D., Fogel, L., Huard, D. J. E., Chagas, R. S., Lieberman, R. L., & Aghazadeh, A. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.17.660210 · Cited by 2
RemoteFoldSet: Benchmarking Structural Awareness of Protein Language ModelsPreprint
Ma, Z., & Bethel, N. P. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.09.23.678152 · Cited by 2
“For the benchmark, we include a representative selection of pLMs, comprising UniRep[13], multiple variants of ProGen2[14], CARP[15], several models from the ESM family[2], as well as the ProtT5 and ProtBert models from the ProtTrans suite[4].”
Liu, Q., Peng, C., Zheng, W. H., Zhang, C., & Freddolino, L. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.20.683515 · Cited by 2
“These models are capable of learning structural and functional features embedded within amino acid sequences, including secondary structure, cell localization, and co-evolutionary relationships [22–24].”
Zhang, C.-W., Yang, L., Qin, Y.-J., Li, D., Dong, S., & Yang, M. (2026) · bioRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.02.01.703093 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, navigating the vast, rugged protein fitness landscape typically relies on expert intuition or rational design, which is constrained by our incomplete understanding of complex structure-function relationships [8, 9].”
Koehl, A., Prillo, S., Liu, M., Xiong, J. T., Weng, L., Savage, D. F., & Song, Y. S. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.02.19.706898 · Cited by 5
“In a di ↵ erent vein, recent applications of deep learning have made great strides in probabilistic models of protein sequences [16–19].”
The rise of the machines in chemistry
Gill, M. L. (2022) · Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry · doi:10.1002/mrc.5304 · Cited by 1
Exploring artificial intelligence through a biologist's lens
Shabir, S., & Hamadani, A. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-24001-0.00001-4 · Cited by 1
AbDPP: Target‐oriented antibody design with pretraining and prior biological structure knowledge
Yu, C., Lin, X., Cheng, Y., Xu, J., Wang, H., Yan, Y., Huang, Y., Liu, L., Zhao, W., Zhao, Q., et al. (2024) · Proteins Structure Function and Bioinformatics · doi:10.1002/prot.26676 · Cited by 1
“Although current deep learning approaches for antibody sequence generation show promise, 20,23,25 there remains considerable room for improvement.”
Artificial intelligence, its components, and crucial technologies for its implementation
Bhattacharjee, R., Sasi, S. D., & Thakran, S. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-18508-3.00012-7 · Cited by 1
Progress in protein pre-training models integrating structural knowledge
Tang, T.-Y., Xiong, Y., Zhang, R.-G., Zhang, J., Li, W., Wang, J., & Wang, W. (2024) · Acta Physica Sinica · doi:10.7498/aps.73.20240811 · Cited by 2
Protein Sequence Feature Extraction Techniques: Research Advances, Progress, and Applications
Wan, X. (2025) · Biomedical engineering · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1009540 · Cited by 1
Li, G., Yao, S., & Fan, L. (2025) · Briefings in Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bib/bbaf190 · Cited by 1
“Many models such as UniRep [20],TAPE [21],ProtTrans [22],and Evolutionary Scale Modeling (EMS) [23] demonstrate the power of deep learning, especially natural language processing, in zero-shot prediction and semantic representation of proteins.”
Progress and challenges for the application of machine learning for neglected tropical diseases
Khew, C., Akbar, R., & Mohd‐Assaad, N. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.129064.2 · Cited by 2
Multitask Learning-Based Approaches for Protein Function Prediction
Bahmani, S., Chaudhari, M., Carrier, C., Garrett, S., Pratyush, P., & KC, D. B. (2025) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-4662-5_4 · Cited by 1
Progress and challenges for the application of machine learning for neglected tropical diseases
Khew, C., Akbar, R., & Mohd‐Assaad, N. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.129064.3 · Cited by 1
Tahzima, R., Charon, J., Díaz, A., Jonghe, K. D., Massart, S., Michon, T., & Vranken, W. (2025) · Frontiers in Virology · doi:10.3389/fviro.2025.1501616 · Cited by 1
Kumar, S., & Singh, A. (2025) · Medicinal Chemistry Research · doi:10.1007/s00044-025-03465-7 · Cited by 1
“In contrast to the k-gram approach, a novel representation technique (referenced as [120]) was developed to use RNN using unlabelled amino acid sequences to construct statistical models of proteins.”
Huang, L., Yu, X., Li, S., Chen, Q., Xu, D., & Zhao, Q. (2025) · Briefings in Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bib/bbaf481 · Cited by 1
“We also explored the Babbler model,part of the UniRep (Universal Representation of Protein) family [45].”
Design of a Labile RNase A Using Protein Language Models
Ong, G., Kong, K. W., Poh, S. E., Wong, F. T., Seow, Y., & Koh, W. L. C. (2025) · ACS Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1021/acssynbio.5c00287 · Cited by 2
Machine Learning Approaches for Interpretable Antibody Property Prediction Using Structural Data
Michalewicz, K., Barahona, M., & Bravi, B. (2026) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-5408-8_7 · Cited by 1
“Machine Learning (ML) methods hold great promise in this setting, thanks to their success in protein-related prediction tasks [9–11].”
LMProtein: a protein language model based framework for protein structural property prediction
Yuan, Y., Luo, H., & Tian, Y. (2025) · Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics · doi:10.1039/d5cp01861g · Cited by 1
KmPred: prediction of Michaelis constants (Km) using an integrative machine learning framework
Alazmi, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2026.1711471 · Cited by 4
Li, X., Luo, X., Xie, S., Wei, Y., Hong, F., Jiang, Y., Zhong, X., Xie, X., Ma, C., Hao, Y., et al. (2026) · Current Research in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.crfs.2026.101404 · Cited by 1
“UniRep is architecturally based on a multiplicative LSTM (mLSTM) network (Alley et al., 2019) and was pre-trained on 24 million protein sequences from the UniRef50 database.”
Chen, H., Tu, Z., Xie, Z., Wen, P., Wang, H., Wang, F., Zhang, J., Wang, S., & Hu, Y. (2026) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.70477 · Cited by 1
Important progress in antimicrobial peptide prediction research in the past five years
Zuo, Y., Liu, X., Shao, X., Guo, Z., Zhu, S., & Dai, Z. (2026) · Analytical Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ab.2026.116141 · Cited by 1
王东培, Xu, C., Yang, Y., Jiang, Z., Wang, X., Zhao, Y., Li, R., & Ma, H. (2026) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.6c03371 · Cited by 1
AI-Driven Protein Research: From Prediction to Design
Min, G., & Peng, H. (2026) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-5249-7_13 · Cited by 1
Qian, Z., Zhou, Y., Lin, R., Hong, Y., Xu, Y., Li, S., Gao, J., Zhu, Q., & Zheng, H. (2026) · Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research and Innovation · doi:10.29328/journal.jairi.1001022 · Cited by 1
“The high-dimensional latent representations of deep generative models can capture the sequence semantics, structural patterns, and biochemical constraints of peptides, encoding the sequences into a continuous latent space for controlled exploration of functional peptide variants [60–62].”
Abbas, M., Ali, F., Masmoudi, A., Alghamdi, W., Babour, A., & Asiry, O. (2026) · Journal of Computational Science · doi:10.1016/j.jocs.2026.102992 · Cited by 1
Bülbül, E. F., Bang, S., George, K., Bianchi, G., Raj, P., Chung, S., Pauline, V., Hochstrasser, R., Minas, H. A., Elgaher, W. A. M., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-77963-6 · Cited by 1
“Detailed cloning procedures, expression and solubility protocols, puri fi cation and refolding protocols, thermal stability measurements, and primer sequences are provided in the Supplementary Method 2.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Alley, E. C., Khimulya, G., Biswas, S., AlQuraishi, M., & Church, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Church, George M.
- Venue
- Nature Methods
- Published
- 2019-10-21
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1315-1322
- ISSN
- 1548-7091 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-7105
- PMC
- PMC7067682
- OpenAlex
- W2980789587
- Cited by
- 1,131
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 130 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 201 · 2023: 197 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 159 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 17
- FWCI
- 35.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Methods (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Amazon Web Services Cloud Credits for Research
- Center for Effective Altruism
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (T32HG002295, U54-CA225088)
- National Science Foundation GRFP Fellowship
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P50GM107618)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Protein Structure and Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Keywords
- rational protein design, protein stability prediction, de novo protein design, protein mutants, recurrent neural networks, protein function prediction
- MeSH terms
- Deep Learning, Amino Acid Sequence, Mutation, Protein Engineering, Protein Stability
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