Terrestrial mammalian wildlife responses to Unmanned Aerial Systems approaches
Open accessAbstract
Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) are increasingly being used recreationally, commercially and for wildlife research, but very few studies have quantified terrestrial mammalian reactions to UAS approaches. We used two Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL) UAS to approach seven herbivore species in the Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana, after securing the relevant permissions. We recorded responses to 103 vertical and 120 horizontal approaches, the latter from three altitudes above ground level (AGL). We ran mixed logistic regressions to identify factors triggering (i) any response and (ii) an evasive response. We included effects of activity, altitude, direction of approach, distance, habitat, herd type, herd size, other species, target species, time, VTOL type and wind strength. Response triggers were linked to altitude, distance, habitat and target species. Elephant (Loxodonta africana), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus quagga) were most affected by VTOL approach, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and lechwe (Kobus leche) were least responsive, and tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus) displayed intermediate sensitivity. VTOLs flown lower than 60 m AGL and closer than 100 m horizontal distance from target animals triggered behavioural responses in most species. Enforced regulations on recreational UAS use in wildlife areas are necessary to minimise disturbance to terrestrial mammals.
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Flying at lower altitudes, for example lower than 150 m, can have a significant impact on group and individual behavior of mammals, although the severity of wildlife disturbance from drone deployments depends heavily on the focal species, the equipment used, and characteristics of the drone flight.
“A recent study80 showed that flying at lower altitudes (e.g., lower than 150 m) can have a significant impact on group and individual behavior of mammals, although the severity of wildlife disturbance from drone deployments will depend heavily on the focal species, the equipment used, and characteristics of the drone flight (such as approach speed and altitude)81”
From Perspectives in machine learning for wildlife conservation (2022) · cites this paper as [81]
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- Authors
- Bennitt, E., Bartlam-Brooks, H. L. A., Hubel, T. Y., & Wilson, A. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Botswana (BW)
- University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bennitt, Emily
- Venue
- Scientific Reports
- Published
- 2019-02-14
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 2142-2142
- ISSN
- 2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6375938
- OpenAlex
- W2914187338
- Cited by
- 85
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 6.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RVC Research Online (Royal Veterinary College) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- RCUK | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/H013016/1)
- RCUK | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/J018007/1)
- EC | European Research Council (323041)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife-Road Interactions and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
- Keywords
- unmanned aerial systems, wildlife disturbance, terrestrial mammals, herbivores, altitude effects, distance of closest approach, elephants, giraffe, wildebeest, zebra, impala
- MeSH terms
- Aircraft, Animals, Animals, Wild, Behavior, Animal, Female, Male, Mammals, Ecosystem, Remote Sensing Technology
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