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Global climate change driven by soot at the K-Pg boundary as the cause of the mass extinction

Kaiho, Kunio, Oshima, Naga, Adachi, Kouji, Adachi, Yukimasa, Mizukami, Takuya, Fujibayashi, Megumu, Saito, Ryosuke·2016·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/srep28427PMC PMC4944614
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Abstract

The mass extinction of life 66 million years ago at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary, marked by the extinctions of dinosaurs and shallow marine organisms, is important because it led to the macroevolution of mammals and appearance of humans. The current hypothesis for the extinction is that an asteroid impact in present-day Mexico formed condensed aerosols in the stratosphere, which caused the cessation of photosynthesis and global near-freezing conditions. Here, we show that the stratospheric aerosols did not induce darkness that resulted in milder cooling than previously thought. We propose a new hypothesis that latitude-dependent climate changes caused by massive stratospheric soot explain the known mortality and survival on land and in oceans at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary. The stratospheric soot was ejected from the oil-rich area by the asteroid impact and was spread globally. The soot aerosols caused sufficiently colder climates at mid–high latitudes and drought with milder cooling at low latitudes on land, in addition to causing limited cessation of photosynthesis in global oceans within a few months to two years after the impact, followed by surface-water cooling in global oceans in a few years. The rapid climate change induced terrestrial extinctions followed by marine extinctions over several years.

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Figure 1 Stratigraphic variation in organic molecules derived from combustion and land plants, the Carbon Preference Index (CPI), and stable carbon isotope ratios. Cadalene and long-chain n-alkanes are according to Mizukami et al.25. The map shows the paleolocations of the impact site and the sections evaluated. The base map is according to Courtillot et al.67.
Figure 1 Stratigraphic variation in organic molecules derived from combustion and land plants, the Carbon Preference Index (CPI), and stable carbon isotope ratios. Cadalene and long-chain n-alkanes are according to Mizukami et al.25. The map shows the paleolocations of the impact site and the sections evaluated. The base map is according to Courtillot et al.67.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Climate changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–d) Changes in the global averages of the amount of BC in the atmosphere (a), downward shortwave (SW) radiation at the surface (b), surface air temperature over the land (c), and precipitation over the land (d) for the 500-Tg (blue), 1500-Tg (black), and 2600-Tg (red) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection case) are shown on the left axis with filled circles (a–d), and the ratios relative to the control experiment are shown for shortwave radiation and precipitation on the right axis with open squares (b,d). The 30-year global averages of the amount of BC, downward shortwave radiation at the surface, surface air temperature over the land, and precipitation over the land in the control experiment were 41 Gg, 200 W m−2, 281 K, and 2.2 mm day−1, respectively.
Figure 2 Climate changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–d) Changes in the global averages of the amount of BC in the atmosphere (a), downward shortwave (SW) radiation at the surface (b), surface air temperature over the land (c), and precipitation over the land (d) for the 500-Tg (blue), 1500-Tg (black), and 2600-Tg (red) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection case) are shown on the left axis with filled circles (a–d), and the ratios relative to the control experiment are shown for shortwave radiation and precipitation on the right axis with open squares (b,d). The 30-year global averages of the amount of BC, downward shortwave radiation at the surface, surface air temperature over the land, and precipitation over the land in the control experiment were 41 Gg, 200 W m−2, 281 K, and 2.2 mm day−1, respectively.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Meridional distributions of pre-industrial climate conditions and climate changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–t) Time–latitude cross-sections of zonal mean changes in BC loading in the atmosphere (a–d), downward shortwave (SW) radiation at the surface (e–h), surface air temperature over land (i–l), precipitation over land (m–p), and degree of saturation of soil moisture averaged for a depth of 0–50 cm (q–t) for the no ejection (control) (a,e,i,m,q), 500-Tg (b,f,j,n,r), 1500-Tg (c,g,k,o,s), and 2600-Tg (d,h,l,p,t) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment are shown for the amount of BC (b–d) and temperature (j–l). The ratios relative to the control experiment are shown for shortwave radiation (f–h), precipitation (n–p), and soil moisture (r–t). For comparison, the absolute values of the control experiment are shown (a,e,i,m,q). Regions without data correspond to those with no sunlight or the ocean. The scale for the no ejection case is different from the others. The BC emission in the no ejection case is mainly from biomass burning.
Figure 3 Meridional distributions of pre-industrial climate conditions and climate changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–t) Time–latitude cross-sections of zonal mean changes in BC loading in the atmosphere (a–d), downward shortwave (SW) radiation at the surface (e–h), surface air temperature over land (i–l), precipitation over land (m–p), and degree of saturation of soil moisture averaged for a depth of 0–50 cm (q–t) for the no ejection (control) (a,e,i,m,q), 500-Tg (b,f,j,n,r), 1500-Tg (c,g,k,o,s), and 2600-Tg (d,h,l,p,t) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment are shown for the amount of BC (b–d) and temperature (j–l). The ratios relative to the control experiment are shown for shortwave radiation (f–h), precipitation (n–p), and soil moisture (r–t). For comparison, the absolute values of the control experiment are shown (a,e,i,m,q). Regions without data correspond to those with no sunlight or the ocean. The scale for the no ejection case is different from the others. The BC emission in the no ejection case is mainly from biomass burning.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Global distributions of precipitation before and after the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–d) The 30-year average precipitation for the no ejection case (the pre-industrial climate conditions in the control experiment) (a), mean precipitation for 2 years from 6 months after the impact for the 500-Tg (b), 1500-Tg (c), and 2600-Tg (d) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. The precipitation substantially decreased due to the impact in the 15°N to 15°S region on land, resulting in desert-like climates. The figure was created using the Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS) Version 2.0 (http://www.iges.org/grads/).
Figure 4 Global distributions of precipitation before and after the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–d) The 30-year average precipitation for the no ejection case (the pre-industrial climate conditions in the control experiment) (a), mean precipitation for 2 years from 6 months after the impact for the 500-Tg (b), 1500-Tg (c), and 2600-Tg (d) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. The precipitation substantially decreased due to the impact in the 15°N to 15°S region on land, resulting in desert-like climates. The figure was created using the Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS) Version 2.0 (http://www.iges.org/grads/).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Seawater temperature changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–c) Changes in the global averages of seawater temperature at 2-m, 50-m, 100-m, 200-m, 400-m, and 600-m water depths for the 500-Tg (a), 1500-Tg (b), and 2600-Tg (c) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection scenario) are shown. The 30-year global averages of seawater temperature at 2-m, 50-m, 100-m, 200-m, 400-m, and 600-m water depths in the control experiment were 293, 292, 290, 287, 283, and 280 K, respectively. The regions with seawater temperatures below zero at the 2-m water depth in the control experiment were excluded for the estimation of the anomalies and the 30-year averages to exclude the sea ice area.
Figure 5 Seawater temperature changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–c) Changes in the global averages of seawater temperature at 2-m, 50-m, 100-m, 200-m, 400-m, and 600-m water depths for the 500-Tg (a), 1500-Tg (b), and 2600-Tg (c) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection scenario) are shown. The 30-year global averages of seawater temperature at 2-m, 50-m, 100-m, 200-m, 400-m, and 600-m water depths in the control experiment were 293, 292, 290, 287, 283, and 280 K, respectively. The regions with seawater temperatures below zero at the 2-m water depth in the control experiment were excluded for the estimation of the anomalies and the 30-year averages to exclude the sea ice area.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Meridional distributions of pre-industrial seawater temperature and seawater temperature changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–x), Time–latitude cross-sections of zonal mean changes in seawater temperature at 2-m (a–d), 50-m (e–h), 100-m (i–l), 200-m (m–p), 400-m (q–t), and 600-m (u–x) water depths for the no ejection (control) (a,e,i,m,q,u), 500-Tg (b,f,j,n,r,v), 1500-Tg (c,g,k,o,s,w), and 2600-Tg (d,h,l,p,t,x) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment are shown for the three BC scenarios (b–d,f–h,j–l,n–p,r–t,v–x). The regions with seawater temperatures below zero at the 2-m water depth in the no ejection (control) scenario were excluded for the estimation of the anomalies to exclude the sea ice area. For comparison, the absolute values of the control experiment are shown (a,e,i,m,q,u). Regions without data correspond to the sea ice area. The scale for the no ejection scenario is different from the others.
Figure 6 Meridional distributions of pre-industrial seawater temperature and seawater temperature changes caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a–x), Time–latitude cross-sections of zonal mean changes in seawater temperature at 2-m (a–d), 50-m (e–h), 100-m (i–l), 200-m (m–p), 400-m (q–t), and 600-m (u–x) water depths for the no ejection (control) (a,e,i,m,q,u), 500-Tg (b,f,j,n,r,v), 1500-Tg (c,g,k,o,s,w), and 2600-Tg (d,h,l,p,t,x) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment are shown for the three BC scenarios (b–d,f–h,j–l,n–p,r–t,v–x). The regions with seawater temperatures below zero at the 2-m water depth in the no ejection (control) scenario were excluded for the estimation of the anomalies to exclude the sea ice area. For comparison, the absolute values of the control experiment are shown (a,e,i,m,q,u). Regions without data correspond to the sea ice area. The scale for the no ejection scenario is different from the others.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 7 Changes in sea surface temperature (SST) caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a,b) Changes in the average SST values at the proximal site in the Gulf Coast (94–96°W, 27–29°N) (a) and over the Gulf of Mexico (83–97°W, 23–30°N) (b) for the 500-Tg (blue), 1500-Tg (black), and 2600-Tg (red) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection scenario) are shown. The 30-year global averages of the corresponding SST in the control experiment were 295 K and 297 K, respectively.
Figure 7 Changes in sea surface temperature (SST) caused by the black carbon (BC) injection. (a,b) Changes in the average SST values at the proximal site in the Gulf Coast (94–96°W, 27–29°N) (a) and over the Gulf of Mexico (83–97°W, 23–30°N) (b) for the 500-Tg (blue), 1500-Tg (black), and 2600-Tg (red) BC scenarios calculated by the climate model. Monthly anomalies from the control experiment (no ejection scenario) are shown. The 30-year global averages of the corresponding SST in the control experiment were 295 K and 297 K, respectively.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Kaiho, K., Oshima, N., Adachi, K., Adachi, Y., Mizukami, T., Fujibayashi, M., & Saito, R.
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2016-07-14
Volume
6
Issue
1
ISSN
2045-2322
DOI
10.1038/srep28427
PMC
PMC4944614
Cited by
105
References
0
Language
en
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Kaiho, K., Oshima, N., Adachi, K., Adachi, Y., Mizukami, T., Fujibayashi, M., & Saito, R. (2016). Global climate change driven by soot at the K-Pg boundary as the cause of the mass extinction. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28427