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Spoor counts as indices of large carnivore populations: the relationship between spoor frequency, sampling effort and true density
Open accessAbstract
1. Studies of large carnivore populations and, particularly, reliable estimates of population density are necessary for effective conservation management. However, these animals are difficult to study, and direct methods of assessing population size and density are often expensive and time‐consuming. 2. Indirect sampling, by counting spoor, could provide repeatable and inexpensive measures of some population parameters. The relationship between true population density and indirect sampling results has seldom been described in large carnivore studies. 3. In northern Namibia the population densities of leopards, lions and wild dogs were measured through recognition of individuals and groups. Spoor counts were then conducted independently, to assess the relationship between true density and the distribution of spoor. 4. Sampling effort, both in terms of the number of roads and total road distance in a sample zone, and the intensity of sampling, had a marked effect on the accuracy and precision of spoor frequency calculations. 5. In a homogeneous habitat, leopard spoor were evenly spread along different roads and spoor frequency was independent of road length. Taking into account very low sample sizes, the spoor density of leopards, lions and wild dogs showed a strong linear correlation with true density. The slope of the regression for leopards was different to that of lions and wild dogs.
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“Sample penetration (the ratio of sum of transect lengths (km) to survey area (km2)) for most LUTs was close to the value of 7 recommended for these techniques (Stander, 1998) (Table 2).”
From The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (2016) · cites this paper as Stander, 1998
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The Lion King and the Hyaena Queen: large carnivore interactions and coexistence
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The effect of roads and traffic on hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) populations
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Surveying carnivores at large spatial scales: a comparison of four broad-applied methods
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“Several census methods have been proposed but we know little about their relative efficiencies (Zielinski and Kucera 1995; Gros et al. 1996; Foresman and Pearson 1998; Staender 1998; Silveira et al. 2003).”
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Lyra-Jorge, M. C., Ciocheti, G., Pivello, V. R., & Meirelles, S. T. (2008) · European Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.1007/s10344-008-0205-8 · Cited by 173
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Burrows, N., Algar, D., Robinson, A. D., Sinagra, J., Ward, B. G., & Liddelow, G. L. (2003) · Journal of Arid Environments · doi:10.1016/s0140-1963(02)00317-8 · Cited by 134
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“Some studies have combined direct and indirect sampling to define the relationship between track-based indices and actual densities (Stander, 1998; Balme et al., 2009).”
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“Efforts invested in calibration between sign data and true abundance, combined with long-term data collection, have enabled extensive use of sign data as relative or absolute measures for vertebrate abundance in North America, Europe, and Africa [51, 52, 53], where such data have become critical to ecological studies…”
BackgroundFeral cat control research: Western Shield review - February 2003
Algar, D. (2004) · Cited by 90
Dröge, E., Creel, S., Becker, M. S., Loveridge, A. J., Sousa, L. L., & Macdonald, D. W. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.6065 · Cited by 85
“Stander (1998b) found a positive correlation between track frequency and independent estimates of population density for African wild dogs, leopards, and lions in northern Namibia.”
BackgroundVirgós, E., Tellerı́a, J. L., & Santos, T. (2002) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1023/a:1015856703786 · Cited by 85
“Clevenger 1993; Staender 1998 ) as a good alternative to trapping or scent-stations indexes in carnivore-habitat studies conducted at landscape or regional scales.”
BackgroundCan the abundance of tigers be assessed from their signs?
Jhala, Y. V., Qureshi, Q., & Gopal, R. (2010) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01901.x · Cited by 79
“Quanta of signs in an area are likely to be related to abundance (Smallwood & Fitzhugh 1995; Stander 1998).”
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FORUM: Dingoes can help conserve wildlife and our methods can tell
Nimmo, D. G., Watson, S. J., Forsyth, D. M., & Bradshaw, C. J. A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12369 · Cited by 74
“Stander (1998) found that spoor density was strongly and linearly related to known densities of leopards P. pardus (R2 = 0 98), as well as combined densities of lions P. leo © 2015 The Authors.”
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“Consequently, alternative methodologies to assess the distribution and density of carnivore species have been developed (e.g. Harrington and Mech 1982; Karanth and Nichols 1998; Stander 1998; Balme et al. 2009).”
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Rosenblatt, E., Becker, M. S., Creel, S., Dröge, E., Mweetwa, T., Schuette, P. A., Watson, F. G. R., de Merkle, J. R., & Mwape, H. (2014) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.006 · Cited by 68
“…of rapid and economical survey methods have been developed to monitor large carnivore populations, including spoor counts (Van Dyke et al., 1986; Stander, 1998; Houser et al., 2009; Funston et al., 2010; Ferreira et al., 2013; Bauer et al., 2014; Midlane et al., 2014), audio lures (Ogutu and…”
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“Under such circumstances, it is useful to develop methods to extend camera-trapping results to wider spatial scales through the use of calibrated indices such as track counts (Stander et al. 1997; Stander 1998; Karanth et al. 2003; Stephens et al. 2006).”
MethodDietary niche differentiation facilitates coexistence of two large carnivores
du Preez, B., Purdon, J., Trethowan, P., Macdonald, D. W., & Loveridge, A. J. (2017) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/jzo.12443 · Cited by 63
Broekhuis, F., & Gopalaswamy, A. M. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153875 · Cited by 68
“For example, indirect methods such as spoor surveys are commonly used to estimate densities [3, 4].”
Croes, B. M., Funston, P. J., Rasmussen, G. S. A., Buij, R., Saleh, A., Tumenta, P. N., & de Iongh, H. H. (2011) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.013 · Cited by 61
“influenced by road conditions and habitat structure (Stander, 1998; Funston et al., 2010), the similar road surface and environmental characteristics, as well as long distances covered by our road surveys probably limited the effects of such confounding factors on our abundance estimates.”
BackgroundAnimal Density and Track Counts: Understanding the Nature of Observations Based on Animal Movements
Keeping, D., & Pelletier, R. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096598 · Cited by 61
“Stander’s [44] comments are valid since stable animal path tortuosity must be assumed, including the Figure 6.”
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Dolrenry, S., Hazzah, L., & Frank, L. G. (2016) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.12703 · Cited by 59
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“abundance (Stander, 1998; Carbone et al., 2001) most studies have only reported visitation data as uncertain indices of relative abundance.”
BackgroundVocal discrimination of African lions and its potential for collar-free tracking
Wijers, M., Trethowan, P., du Preez, B., Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., Loveridge, A. J., Macdonald, D. W., & Markham, A. (2020) · Bioacoustics · doi:10.1080/09524622.2020.1829050 · Cited by 56
The ecology of cheetahs and other large carnivores in a pastoralist-dominated buffer zone
Maddox, T. M. (2003) · OpenGrey (Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique) · Cited by 56
Multi-species occupancy modelling of a carnivore guild in wildlife management areas in the Kalahari
der Weyde, L. K. V., Mbisana, C., & Klein, R. (2018) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.033 · Cited by 57
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Estimating larger carnivore numbers from track counts and measurements
Gusset, M., & Burgener, N. (2005) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00581.x · Cited by 52
“Stander (1998) described another quantitative technique and showed the validity of track counts as a means of measuring the population densities of large carnivores in Namibia by comparing results from track counts with those from radio-tracking studies.”
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“A variety of field and statistical methods have been used to estimate large carnivore population densities (e.g., Gros et al. 1996; Karanth and Nichols 1998; Stander 1998; Wilson and Delahay 2001).”
MethodThe Sundarbans tiger: adaptation, population status and conflict management.
Barlow, A. C. D. (2009) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 46
An evaluation of structured snow-track surveys to monitor Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx populations
Linnell, J. D. C., Fiske, P., Oddén, J., Brøseth, H., Herfindal, I., & Andersen, R. (2007) · Wildlife Biology · doi:10.2981/0909-6396(2007)13[456:aeosss]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 46
“%) of any lynx that cross the transect leaving tracks than for other media such as sand or dust (Smallwood & Fitzhugh 1995, Stander 1998, Edwards et al. 2000).”
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“While relatively robust indices of presence/absence and population trend can often be obtained for large carnivores (Stahl & Vandel 1998, Stander 1998, Wilson & Delahay 2001), there is also often a need for estimates of actual numbers to set annual quotas or determine compensation levels (Andrén…”
BackgroundImpact of risk on animal behaviour and habitat transition probabilities
du Preez, B., Hart, T., Loveridge, A. J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2014) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.10.025 · Cited by 48
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“…used large carnivore survey techniques, such as direct counts (Durant et al., 2011), call-up surveys (Ogutu and Dublin, 1998) and spoor counts (Stander, 1998), identified spoor counts along PA roads as the most appropriate method in terms of detection efficiency, effort, and cost (Thorn et…”
MethodReview of field methods for monitoring Asian bears
Proctor, M. F., Garshelis, D. L., Thatte, P., Steinmetz, R., Crudge, B., McLellan, B. N., McShea, W. J., Ngoprasert, D., Nawaz, M. A., Wong, S. T., et al. (2022) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02080 · Cited by 41
Midlane, N., O'Riain, M. J., Balme, G. A., & Hunter, L. (2015) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-015-0858-z · Cited by 44
“Mean transect length was 21.8 km, while mean segment length (i.e. transects split between PLU zones) was 11.2 km. Penetration index (Stander 1998) was 11.3 km2 per km driven.”
InfluentialThe impact of lions on the demography and ecology of endangered African wild dogs
Groom, R. J., Lannas, K., & Jackson, C. R. (2016) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12328 · Cited by 43
“Spoor surveys have been shown to be an effective and efficient means to assess wildlife densities (Stander, 1998; Funston et al., 2001, 2010; Davidson & Roma~nach, 2007) as there is a strong correlation between spoor density and true density.”
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“Both track counts and more recently camera trap rates have been utilized as indices of abundance and extended to predict density by calibration through double sampling (e.g. Stander, 1998; Carbone et al., 2001; Houser, Somers & Boast, 2009; Rovero & Marshall, 2009; Funston et al., 2010).”
MethodOn the allure of noninvasive genetic sampling — putting a face to the name
Garshelis, D. L. (2006) · Ursus · doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[109:otaong]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 37
Mbizah, M. M., Mariño, J., & Groom, R. J. (2012) · South African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.042.0213 · Cited by 35
Keeping, D., Burger, J. H., Keitsile-Barungwi, A., Gielen, M., Mudongo, E. I., Wallgren, M., Skarpe, C., & Foote, A. L. (2018) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.04.027 · Cited by 35
“Selebatso, unpublished data), and large carnivores whereby day range estimates were made through following habituated animals and GPS collars (Mills, 1990; Mills and Mills, 2017; Stander, 1998).”
BackgroundBarlow, A. C. D., Ahmed, M. I. U., Rahman, M. M., Howlader, A., Smith, A. C., & Smith, J. L. D. (2008) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.05.018 · Cited by 33
The importance of farmland for the conservation of the brown hyaena Parahyaena brunnea
Kent, V. T., & Hill, R. A. (2013) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605312001007 · Cited by 39
Limitations to recording larger mammalian predators in savannah using camera traps and spoor
Pirie, T. J., Thomas, R. L., & Fellowes, M. D. E. (2015) · Wildlife Biology · doi:10.2981/wlb.00129 · Cited by 32
“…that the sex of tracked Panthera spp. and cougar Felis concolor can be judged from size differ- ences in spoor (Bothma 1984, Stander et al. 1997, Stander 1998, Sharma et al. 2003, Sanei et al. 2011, Gu et al. 2014); indeed, if enough features are recorded, leopard, snow leopard, tiger, white…”
BackgroundLeopard (Panthera pardus) occupancy in the Chure range of Nepal
Lamichhane, B. R., Lamichhane, S., Regmi, R., Dhungana, M., Thapa, S. K., Prasai, A., Gurung, A., Bhattarai, S., Paudel, R. P., & Subedi, N. (2021) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.8105 · Cited by 31
“We do not have the data on the density of prey in the Chure range but the low detection of prey signs (except the wild boar) indicates their low abundance (Smallwood & Fitzhugh, 1995; Stander, 1998).”
BackgroundThorn, M., Green, M. W., Bateman, P. W., Cameron, E. Z., Yarnell, R. W., & Scott, D. M. (2010) · South African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.040.0113 · Cited by 30
“surveys have been used to estimate absolute abundance of tigers (Panthera tigris), cheetahs, lions, leopards, brown hyaenas and spotted hyaenas (Stander 1998; O’Brien et al. 2003; Carbone et al. 2009; Houser et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSouthgate, R., Paltridge, R., Masters, P., & Nano, T. J. (2005) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr03087 · Cited by 30
Leopards of the Cape: conservation and conservation concerns
Martins, Q. E., & Martins, N. (2006) · International Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.1080/00207230600963486 · Cited by 29
“Reliable population estimates of large carnivores are essential for effective conservation management [20], yet the best estimates of leopard density in the Cape are extremely vague.”
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Simplified large African carnivore density estimators from track indices
Winterbach, C. W., Ferreira, S. M., Funston, P. J., & Somers, M. J. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.2662 · Cited by 28
“Adding the brown hyaena and leopard data (Table 2) did not alter the slope (a= 3.26). The slope of Model 3 General Carnivore on Sand model through origin (a= 3.26±0.24;r2= 0.98; t = 29.169; P < 0.001) was very similar to the slope for a small sample of lion and wild dog densities (a= 3.28±0.24; r2= 0.98; t = 13.55; P…”
MethodResultInfluentialResponses of small carnivores to rainforest fragmentation in the southern Western Ghats, India
Mudappa, D., Noon, B. R., Kumar, A., & Chellam, R. (2007) · Cited by 28
The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe
Williams, S. T., Williams, K. S., Joubert, C. J., & Hill, R. A. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.1537 · Cited by 28
“…calculating 95% confidence intervals from two randomly sampled inter-spoor 172 intervals with replacement, then progressively increasing the sample size and calculating fresh 173 confidence intervals with each sample (after Stander, 1998) using R version 3.2.0 (R 174 Development Core Team, 2015).”
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“Methods commonly used to survey mammals in the field include counts of tracks or spoor (Beier and Cunningham 1996; Stander 1998; Wilson and Delahay 2001; Silveira et al.”
BackgroundDensity of large predators on commercial farmland in Ghanzi, Botswana
Boast, L. K., & Houser, A. (2012) · South African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.042.0202 · Cited by 37
“However, this equation is not suitable for low densities, therefore the Stander (1998) equation designed for leopards (Panthera pardus), was used to estimate the calibrated leopard density.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStatus Report for the Cheetah in Botswana
Klein, R. (2007) · Cited by 26
Abi-Said, M. R., & Abi-Said, D. M. (2007) · Zoology in the Middle East · doi:10.1080/09397140.2007.10638241 · Cited by 24
“Several indirect methods have been proposed, which include: measuring tracks, counting spoor and identifying footprints (VAN DYKE et al. 1986, SMALLWOOD & FITZHUGH 1995, RIORDAN 1998, STANDER 1998), and using prey requirements to estimate density (KARANTH et al. 2004).”
MethodPía, M. V., Renison, D., Mangeaud, A., de Angelo, C., & Haro, J. G. (2013) · Journal of Arid Environments · doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.11.004 · Cited by 16
Gruber, B., Reineking, B., Calabrese, J. M., Kranz, A., Poledníková, K., Poledník, L., Klenke, R., Valentin, A., & Henle, K. (2007) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01406.x · Cited by 22
“In conclusion, although these methods may be inaccurate (Stander 1998) and/or rely on assumptions that are sometimes difficult to meet (Sargeant, Johnson & Berg 1998; Stephens et al.”
MethodAccounting for false positive detection error induced by transient individuals
Sutherland, C. S., Elston, D. A., & Lambin, X. (2013) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr12166 · Cited by 21
Brown hyaena population explosion: rapid population growth in a small, fenced system
Welch, R. J., & Parker, D. M. (2016) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr15123 · Cited by 23
“Robust population estimates are critical in ecological investigations and are crucial for effective wildlife management (Stander 1998; Gusset and Burgener 2005; Manning and Goldberg 2010).”
BackgroundOur shared kingdom at risk : human-lion relationships in the 21st century
Lichtenfeld, L. L. (2005) · Cited by 21
Mkonyi, F. J., Estes, A. B., Lichtenfeld, L. L., & Durant, S. M. (2018) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12528 · Cited by 20
Melville, H. I. A. S., & Bothma, J. D. P. (2005) · Journal of Arid Environments · doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.06.005 · Cited by 19
“Only spoor that were less than 24 h old, as indicated by the tracker (based on the guidelines of Stander, 1998), were recorded.”
BackgroundMethodTarugara, A., Clegg, B. W., Gandiwa, E., & Muposhi, V. K. (2019) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00627 · Cited by 19
The validity and precision of spotlighting for surveying desert mammal communities
Scott, D. M., Waite, S., Maddox, T., Freer, R., & Dunstone, N. (2004) · Journal of Arid Environments · doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2004.09.008 · Cited by 19
Mapping trends of large and medium size carnivores of conservation interest in Romania
Cazacu, C., Adamescu, M. C., Ionescu, O. M., Ionescu, G., Jurj, R., Popa, M., Cazacu, R., & Cotovelea, A. (2014) · Annals of Forest Research · doi:10.15287/afr.2014.170 · Cited by 19
“…of 50’s. Track counts and scat deposition along a transect are the methods generally used to estimate the population size (Beasom 1974a, Crete & Messier 1987, Palomares et al. 1996, Van Dyke et al. 1986, Van Sickle & Lindzey 1991, Smallwood & Fitzhugh 1991, Beier & Cunningham 1996, Stander 1998).”
MethodTrack surveys do not provide accurate or precise lion density estimates in serengeti
Belant, J. L., Bled, F., Mkasanga, I. J., Wilton, C. M., Mwampeta, S. B., Beyer, D. E., Mwakilema, W., & Fyumagwa, R. (2019) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00651 · Cited by 21
Boda, P., Bozóki, T., Vásárhelyi, T., Bakonyi, G., & Várbíró, G. (2015) · ZooKeys · doi:10.3897/zookeys.501.8964 · Cited by 18
“Increased sampling effort contributes to a better knowledge of regional faunas (Dennis et al. 1999, Stander 1998, Rocchini et al. 2011).”
BackgroundMethods for lion monitoring: a comparison from the S elous G ame R eserve, T anzania
Brink, H., Smith, R. J., & Skinner, K. (2012) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12051 · Cited by 18
“, 2002), spoor transects (Stander, 1998; Funston et al., 2010), audio playback response surveys, referred to hereafter as ‘call-ups’ (Ogutu & Dublin, 1998; Ferreira & Funston, 2010), and individual identification (Pennycuick & Rudnai, 1970).”
BackgroundMethodAge classes of the greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis) based on track and faecal pellet size
Southgate, R. (2005) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr03088 · Cited by 18
Bauer, D., Schiess-Meier, M., Mills, D. R., & Gusset, M. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1139/cjz-2013-0176 · Cited by 17
An Experimentally Determined Persistence-Rate Correction Factor for Scat-Based Abundance Indices
Brodie, J. F. (2006) · Wildlife Society Bulletin · doi:10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1216:aedpcf]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 16
“Scat-based indices and estimators have been shown to scale proportionally to known snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus; Krebs et al. 1987), deer (Cervus nippon; Marquez et al. 2001), and large carnivore (Stander 1998) density.”
BackgroundMidlane, N. (2014) · Open University of Cape Town (University of Cape Town) · Cited by 16
Growcott, J., Lobora, A. L., Markham, A., Searle, C. E., Wahlström, J., Wijers, M., & Simmons, B. I. (2024) · Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1002/rse2.429 · Cited by 15
“Currently, data collection relies upon camera traps (e.g., du Preez et al., 2014; Searle et al., 2021; Strampelli et al., 2018), telemetry studies (Nams et al., 2023) and spoor surveys (Searle et al., 2020; Stander, 1998), which are initially expensive, invasive and time-consuming, respectively.”
Romañach, S. S., & Lindsey, P. A. (2008) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00156.x · Cited by 14
“…compilation c 2008 The Zoological Society of London112 interpretation of events and documentation of the numbers and species of animals involved (Stander, 1998); trackers have been successfully used in several predator studies in southern Africa (Mills, 1990; Bothma & le Riche, 1993; Stander,…”
MethodSurveying carnivores at large spatial scales: a comparison of four broad-applied methods
Barea‐Azcón, J. M., Virgós, E., Ballesteros‐Duperón, E., Moleón, M., & Ríos, M. C. (2006) · Topics in biodiversity and conservation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6320-6_26 · Cited by 15
Gaidet, N., Fritz, H., Messad, S., Mutake, S., & Bel, S. L. (2005) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2004.00545.x · Cited by 15
“Indirect techniques based on sign detection may be a valuable tool in some instances, and track surveys reported reliable results for difficult-monitoring species such as large carnivores (Beier & Cunningham, 1996; Stander, 1998).”
MethodKhorozyan, I., Malkhasyan, A., Asmaryan, S., & Abramov, A. V. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4_18 · Cited by 14
“Our results agree with those of other authors that at least three surveys should be conducted in a study area to obtain the usable estimates of detection probability and the numbers of surveys, trails and study areas should be maximized whenever possible, even at the expense of route lengths (Van Sickle and Lindzey 19…”
BackgroundResultTraditional Versus Multivariate Methods for Identifying Jaguar, Puma, and Large Canid Tracks
Angelo, C. D., Paviolo, A., & Bitetti, M. S. D. (2010) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2193/2009-293 · Cited by 14
“Spoor counts have been used as indicators of presence, relative abundance, and density estimation of different species (Van Dyke et al. 1986, Stander 1998, Crooks 2002, Wilting et al. 2006).”
MethodMuntifering, J. R., Linklater, W. L., Naidoo, R., Uri-Khob, S., du Preez, P., Beytell, P., Jacobs, S. M., & Knight, A. T. (2019) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605318001606 · Cited by 13
SAMARASINGHE, D. J. S., Wikramanayake, E., Gopalaswamy, A. M., Jayewardene, R., Kumara, J., Fernando, J., Gunawardene, K., Alexander, J. S., & Braczkowski, A. R. (2022) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02173 · Cited by 18
“We set camera traps along game trails, dry stream beds, and motorable park roads as leopards are known to regularly travel, hunt and scent mark along them (Bailey, 1993; Stander, 1998; Balme et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMoseby, K. E., Read, J., Tuft, K. D., & der Weyde, L. K. V. (2023) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.14209 · Cited by 12
“Some studies show significant linear relationships between spoor and true density (Stander, 1998), including 2 of the 4 species studied here (Moseby et al., 2018; Arkinstall et al. 2024).”
BackgroundAfrican lion (Panthera leo) behavior, monitoring, and survival in human-dominated landscapes
Dolrenry, S. (2013) · Cited by 12
Balestrieri, A., Zenato, M., Fontana, E., Vezza, P., Remonti, L., Caronni, F. E., Saino, N., & Prigioni, C. (2015) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/jzo.12284 · Cited by 12
“Networks of transects surveyed for tracks are often used to assess the abundance of several mammals (e.g. Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Heinemeyer et al., 2008) and these line–intercept indices seem to correlate well with density (Stander, 1998).”
BackgroundWinterbach, C. W., Maude, G., Neo‐Mahupeleng, G., Klein, R., Boast, L. K., Rich, L. N., & Somers, M. J. (2017) · Koedoe · doi:10.4102/koedoe.v59i2.1441 · Cited by 12
“za Open Access once per day on the survey (Stander 1998).”
BackgroundMethodEcology and population status of the Serval Leptailurus serval (SCHREBER, 1776) in Zambia
Thiel, C. (2011) · bonndoc (University of Bonn) · Cited by 12
Leopard Panthera pardus camera trap surveys in the arid environments of northern Namibia
Portas, R., Wachter, B., Beytell, P. C., Uiseb, K., Melzheimer, J., & Edwards, S. (2022) · Mammalian Biology · doi:10.1007/s42991-022-00237-3 · Cited by 11
“Leopards (Panthera pardus) are large carnivores with elusive habits and secretive behaviour, and are therefore difficult to count (Bailey 1993; Stander 1998; Balme et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialde Carvalho, W. D., Rosalino, L. M., Adania, C. H., & Esbérard, C. E. L. (2016) · Iheringia Série Zoologia · doi:10.1590/1678-4766e2016005 · Cited by 11
Land use, REDD+ and the status of wildlife populations in Yaeda Valley, northern Tanzania
Kiffner, C., Arndt, Z., Foky, T., Gaeth, M., Gannett, A., Jackson, M., Lellman, G., Love, S. M., Maroldi, A., McLaughlin, S., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214823 · Cited by 13
Arabian Leopard,Panthera pardus nimr, status and habitat assessment in northwest Dhofar, Oman
Mazzolli, M. (2009) · Zoology in the Middle East · doi:10.1080/09397140.2009.10638341 · Cited by 11
“It is now generally acknowledged that leopard track counts are strongly and linearly correlated with true leopard density (STANDER 1998, BALME et al. 2009), although the slope of this relationship is a priori unknown and needs to be calibrated in situ.”
BackgroundTwenty years of lion conservation in a commercial rangeland
Frank, L. G. (2023) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2023.1141195 · Cited by 10
“(2) In 2005, Thomas Stephens ran spoor transects (Stander, 1998) on three ranches on which all lions were known (Stephens, T. unpubl., BSc thesis, University of Southampton).”
BackgroundSanei, A., Zakaria, M., Yusof, E., & Kasim, M. R. M. (2011) · Universiti Putra Malaysia Institutional Repository (Universiti Putra Malaysia) · Cited by 10
Lion Densities in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania
Crosmary, W., Ikanda, D. K., Ligate, F. A., Sandini, P., Mkasanga, I. J., Mkuburo, L., Lyamuya, R. D., Ngongolo, K., & Chardonnet, P. (2018) · African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.048.014001 · Cited by 9
“In October and early November 2014, we used track counts (hereafter spoor survey; Stander, 1998; Funston et al., 2010) over large portions of the Reserve to estimate the abundance of lions and other large carnivores, i.”
MethodHuman impacts on carnivore biodiversity inside and outside protected areas in Tanzania
Msuha, M. J. (2009) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Stander, P. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Stander, P. E.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Ecology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1998-06
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 378-385
- ISSN
- 0021-8901 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2664
- OpenAlex
- W2023094193
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Ecology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Environment
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Census and Population Estimation
- Keywords
- large carnivores, population density estimation, indirect sampling, sampling effort, leopard, lion, wild dogs, Namibia, wildlife conservation management
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