Using spoor and prey counts to determine temporal and spatial variation in lion (Panthera leo) density
Open accessAbstract
In many African countries, large carnivores such as lions (Panthera leo (L., 1758)) are under serious threat through conflict with people, declining prey abundance, and exposure to disease. Spoor and prey count surveys were used to determine temporal and spatial variation in lion density in Khutse Game Reserve (KGR), Botswana, and the adjacent communal grazing area. Estimated lion density in KGR for the period September 2008 – June 2010 was 41% lower than for the period June 2007 – August 2008 (1.02 vs. 1.72 lions/100 km 2). Prior to this population crash in mid-2008, estimated lion density in the communal grazing area (1.21 lions/100 km 2) was 30% lower than inside KGR. The relative abundance of the three most abundant, preferred prey species of lions occurring in KGR decreased from 2001 to 2008 by 50%–79%. Based on two prey biomass estimates, the lion population in KGR was below the potential carrying capacity of the habitat after the crash in mid-2008. These results suggest that there could be a human-caused population sink around KGR, which might be strong enough to threaten the long-term survival of lions in the area; particularly if this edge effect is intensified by prey depletion and disease outbreaks, which might have caused the sudden decline in the lion population.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
(2023) · doi:10.1126/science · Cited by 6,063 · see citing works
(1996) · Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) · doi:10.1111/j · Cited by 5,486 · see citing works
Williams, W. T., & Greig-Smith, P. W. (1965) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.2307/2257643 · Cited by 2,412 · see citing works
Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas
Woodroffe, R., & Ginsberg, J. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.280.5372.2126 · Cited by 1,818 · see citing works
(1996) · IUCN eBooks · Cited by 1,701 · see citing works
Large mammal population declines in Africa’s protected areas
Craigie, I. D., Baillie, J. E. M., Balmford, A., Carbone, C., Collen, B., Green, R. E., & Hutton, J. M. (2010) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.06.007 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
Tigers and their prey: Predicting carnivore densities from prey abundance
Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., Kumar, N. S., Link, W. A., & Hines, J. E. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0306210101 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
A Common Rule for the Scaling of Carnivore Density
Carbone, C., & Gittleman, J. L. (2002) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1067994 · Cited by 616 · see citing works
Prey preferences of the lion (<i>Panthera leo</i>)
Hayward, M. W., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2005) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1017/s0952836905007508 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Kissui, B. M. (2008) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00199.x · Cited by 392 · see citing works
The size of savannah Africa: a lion’s (Panthera leo) view
Riggio, J., Jacobson, A. P., Dollar, L. J., Bauer, H., Becker, M. S., Dickman, A., Funston, P. J., Groom, R. J., Henschel, P., de Iongh, H. H., et al. (2012) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Carrying capacity of large African predators: Predictions and tests
Hayward, M. W., O’Brien, J., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2007) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.06.018 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Conserving large carnivores: dollars and fence
Packer, C., Loveridge, A. J., Canney, S. M., Caro, T., Garnett, S. T., Pfeifer, M., Zander, K. K., Swanson, A., MacNulty, D. R., Balme, G. A., et al. (2013) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12091 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Balme, G. A., Slotow, R., & Hunter, L. (2010) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00342.x · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional population impacts
Woodroffe, R., & Frank, L. G. (2005) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1017/s1367943004001829 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Evaluating methods for counting cryptic carnivores
BALME, G. A., HUNTER, L. T. B., & SLOTOW, R. (2009) · The Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2193/2007-368 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Gusset, M., Swarner, M. J., Mponwane, L., Keletile, K., & McNutt, J. W. (2009) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605308990475 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Self-citationInventory of free-ranging lions <i>Panthera leo</i> in Africa
Bauer, H., & Van Der Merwe, S. (2004) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605304000055 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Hemson, G., Maclennan, S., Mills, G., Johnson, P. J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2009) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.024 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Ecological correlates of lion social organization (Panthera leo)
Orsdol, K. G. V., Hanby, J. P., & Bygott, J. D. (1985) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb05639.x · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Evaluation of a compensation scheme to bring about pastoralist tolerance of lions
Maclennan, S., Groom, R. J., Macdonald, D. W., & Frank, L. G. (2009) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.12.003 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Pennycuick, C. J., & Rudnai, J. A. (1970) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1970.tb03093.x · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Stander, P. E. (1998) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.1998.00313.x · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The ecology of asociality in Namibian leopards
Stander, P. E., Haden, P. J., Kaqece, I., & Ghau, I. (1997) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05806.x · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Carnivore demography and the consequences of changes in prey availability
Fuller, T., & Sievert, P. (2001) · ScholarWorks@UMassAmherst (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Estimating lion population variables: prey and disease effects in Kruger National Park, South Africa
Ferreira, S. M., & Funston, P. J. (2010) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr09030 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Tracking and the interpretation of spoor: a scientifically sound method in ecology
Stander, P. E., Ghau, I., Tsisaba, D., OMA, I., & vi (1997) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05805.x · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Funston, P. J., Frank, L., Stephens, T., Davidson, Z., Loveridge, A., Macdonald, D. M., Durant, S., Packer, C., Mosser, A., & Ferreira, S. M. (2010) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00682.x · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Livestock Predation—Insights From Problem Animal Control Registers in Botswana
Schiess-Meier, M., Ramsauer, S., Gabanapelo, T., & König, B. (2007) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2193/2006-177 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationvan der Meer, E., Fritz, H., Blinston, P., & Rasmussen, G. S. A. (2013) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605312001366 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Conflicting human interests over the re-introduction of endangered wild dogs in South Africa
Gusset, M., Maddock, A. H., Gunther, G. J., Gunther, M. S., Slotow, R., Walters, M., & Somers, M. J. (2007) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9232-0 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationGros, P. M., Kelly, M. J., & Caro, T. M. (1996) · Oikos · doi:10.2307/3546058 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Weilenmann, M., Gusset, M., Mills, D. R., Gabanapelo, T., & Schiess-Meier, M. (2010) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr10013 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman–Carnivore Coexistence on Communal Land Bordering the Greater Kruger Area, South Africa
Lagendijk, D. D. G., & Gusset, M. (2008) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-008-9204-5 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationKey factors and related principles in the conservation of large A frican carnivores
Winterbach, H. E., Winterbach, C. W., Somers, M. J., & Hayward, M. W. (2012) · Mammal Review · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2011.00209.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Multi-host pathogens and carnivore management in southern Africa
Alexander, K. A., McNutt, J. W., Briggs, M. B., STANDERS, P. E., Funston, P. J., Hemson, G., Keet, D. F., & Vuuren, M. V. (2008) · Comparative Immunology Microbiology and Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2008.10.005 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Demography of lions in the Etosha National Park, Namibia
Stander, P. E. (1991) · Madoqua · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Estimating larger carnivore numbers from track counts and measurements
Gusset, M., & Burgener, N. (2005) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00581.x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationPopulation Characteristics of Lions (Panthera leo) in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
Funston, P. J. (2011) · South African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.041.0108 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Houser, A., Somers, M. J., & Boast, L. K. (2009) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00554.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Ramsauer, S., Bay, G., Meli, M. L., Hofmann‐Lehmann, R., & Lutz, H. (2007) · Clinical and Vaccine Immunology · doi:10.1128/cvi.00307-06 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Trinkel, M. (2009) · Ecological Research · doi:10.1007/s11284-009-0669-3 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Declining body size in an endangered large mammal
McNutt, J. W., & Gusset, M. (2011) · Biological Journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01785.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationClimate variability, human wildlife conflict and population dynamics of lions Panthera leo
Trinkel, M. (2013) · Die Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1034-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Conservation implications of Kalahari lion population dynamics
Ferreira, S. M., Govender, D., & Herbst, M. (2012) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Muir, M. J. (2010) · Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy · doi:10.1080/13880292.2010.524573 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Genetic sexing of stock-raiding leopards: not only males to blame
Kerth, G., Gusset, M., Garbely, J., König, B., Gabanapelo, T., & Schiess-Meier, M. (2013) · Conservation Genetics Resources · doi:10.1007/s12686-013-9979-4 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- [13]13. Funston, P.J., Hermann, E., Babupi, P., Kruiper, A., Kruiper, H., Jaggers, H., Masule, K., and Kruiper, K. 2001. Spoor frequency estimates as a method of determining lion and other large mammal densities in the Kgalagadi Trans- frontier Park. In Kalahari Transfrontier lion project. Edited by P.J. Funston. Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg. pp. 36-52.
- [20]20. Hanby, J.P., Bygott, J.D., and Packer, C. 1995. Ecology, demography, and behavior of lions in two contrasting habitats: Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti plains. In Serengeti II: dynamics, management, and conservation of an eco- system. Edited by A.R.E Sinclair and P. Arcese. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. pp. 315-331.
- [29]29. Loveridge, A.J., Hemson, G., Davidson, Z., and Macdonald, D.W. 2010. African lions on the edge: reserve boundaries as "attractive sinks". In Biology and conservation of wild felids. Edited by D.W. Macdonald and A.J. Loveridge. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 283-304.
- [37]37. Ramsauer, S. 2006. Living at low density: a study of within and between pride dynamics in Kalahari lions. Ph.D. thesis, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Big cats kill more livestock when wild prey reaches a minimum threshold
Khorozyan, I., Ghoddousi, A., Soofi, M., & Waltert, M. (2015) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2015.09.031 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Morin, D. J., Higdon, S. D., Holub, J. L., Montague, D. M., Fies, M. L., Waits, L. P., & Kelly, M. J. (2016) · Wildlife Society Bulletin · doi:10.1002/wsb.723 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Dröge, E., Creel, S., Becker, M. S., Loveridge, A. J., Sousa, L. L., & Macdonald, D. W. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.6065 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Detecting declines of apex carnivores and evaluating their causes: An example with Zambian lions
Rosenblatt, E., Becker, M. S., Creel, S., Dröge, E., Mweetwa, T., Schuette, P. A., Watson, F. G. R., de Merkle, J. R., & Mwape, H. (2014) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.006 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Landscape Suitability in Botswana for the Conservation of Its Six Large African Carnivores
Winterbach, H. E. K., Winterbach, C. W., & Somers, M. J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100202 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Kane, M. D., Morin, D. J., & Kelly, M. J. (2015) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-015-1012-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Simplified large African carnivore density estimators from track indices
Winterbach, C. W., Ferreira, S. M., Funston, P. J., & Somers, M. J. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.2662 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe
Williams, S. T., Williams, K. S., Joubert, C. J., & Hill, R. A. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.1537 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Spoor were disregarded if they were over 24 hours old or if the spoor were thought to be from an individual that had been recorded earlier on the transect that day, which was determined from spoor morphology, group size and direction of travel (Bauer et al., 2014; Funston et al., 2010; Stander, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTensen, L., Groom, R. J., Khuzwayo, J., & van Vuuren, B. J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190369 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A socio-ecological landscape analysis of human–wildlife conflict in northern Botswana
Dunnink, J. A., Hartley, R., Rutina, L., Alves, J., & Franco, A. M. A. (2019) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605318001394 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Lion (Panthera leo) ecology and survival in protected areas of Ethiopia
Yirga, G., Amare, S., Gebresenbet, F., de Iongh, H. H., Vos, M., Sillero‐Zubiri, C., & Bauer, H. (2021) · Mammalian Biology · doi:10.1007/s42991-021-00137-y · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ahlswede, S., Fabiano, E. C., Keeping, D., & Birkhofer, K. (2019) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12587 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Finerty, G. E., Borrego, N., Alibhai, S. K., Jewell, Z. C., Tschanz, P., Balone, T., Gabaikanye, T., Gana, M., Monnaanoka, S., Mamou, M., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Conservation Science · doi:10.3389/fcosc.2024.1402500 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationNicholson, S. K., Mills, D. R., Adams, E. C., Marneweck, D. G., Bauer, H., Roxburgh, L., & Slotow, R. (2024) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e02908 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationWalters, M. H., Hauptfleisch, M., & Peters, R. F. (2024) · African Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.3957/056.054.0146 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Game fencing as a human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategy and its implications for conservation
Kesch, K. (2015) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Boldness and natural behaviors in the African lion (Panthera leo): How are they related?
Kamyk, C. M. (2017) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bauer, D., Schiess-Meier, M., Mills, D. R., & Gusset, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Hohenheim (DE)
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Leopard Ecology & Conservation, Khutse Game Reserve, Private Bag BR7, Gaborone, Botswana.
- University of Oxford (GB)
- ORCID
- Gusset, M.
- Venue
- Canadian Journal of Zoology
- Publisher
- Canadian Science Publishing
- Published
- 2014-02
- Volume
- 92
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 97-104
- ISSN
- 0008-4301 (ISSN-L)
- 1480-3283
- OpenAlex
- W2171901893
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2024: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 2.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.zora.uzh.ch
- Locations
- Canadian Journal of Zoology (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Messerli-Stiftung
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Keywords
- lion, population density, prey biomass, temporal variation, spatial variability, carrying capacity, sink populations, large carnivore conservation, habitat edge effects
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
