Recent star formation in the inner Galactic bulge seen by ISOGAL: II. The central molecular zone
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We present 5–38 μm spectroscopic observations of a sample of 68 ISOGAL sources with unknown natures, taken with the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph. Based on the characteristics and the slope of their spectra, we classified the sources as young or late-type evolved objects. These sources were selected to test selection criteria based on the ISOGAL [7]–[15] color and the spatial extent parameter σ15. We revised these criteria until they reliably distinguished between young and late-type evolved objects and then applied them to all ISOGAL sources in the central molecular zone (CMZ), resulting in the selection of 485 sources believed to be young. Furthermore, we added 656 Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) sources to the CMZ sample that fulfilled FE/FD > 2 with FD and FE being the flux densities in the D (15 μm) and E (21 μm) bands. After obtaining conversion factors, we calculated the bolometric luminosity, Lbol, values for the CMZ sample and subsequently the masses of the sources. Applying a Kroupa initial mass function, we derived the total mass in young objects that have been formed over the last 1 Myr, resulting in an average star formation rate of 0.08 solar masses per year for the CMZ.
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This YSO-based SFR value was later updated to 0.05-0.08 M⊙/yr due to contamination by main sequence stars.
“This value was later updated to 0 . 05 -0 . 08 M ⊙ yr -1 due to contamination by main sequence stars (An et al. 2011; Immer et al. 2012; Koepferl et al. 2015; Nandakumar et al. 2018).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Immer et al. 2012
Section 3.2.5 reports a YSO-based star formation rate of 0.08 M⊙/yr, supporting the upper end of the cited range. It does not report 0.05 M⊙/yr or say the rate was updated because of main-sequence-star contamination; sections 2.4 and 3.2.3 instead discuss contamination by non-young objects, particularly late evolved stars. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Gramze, S. R., Ginsburg, A. G., Meier, D. S., Ott, J., Shirley, Y. L., Sormani, M. C., & Svoboda, B. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad01be · Cited by 14 · see citing works
CMZoom. IV. Incipient High-mass Star Formation throughout the Central Molecular Zone
Hatchfield, H. P., Battersby, C., Barnes, A. T., Butterfield, N., Ginsburg, A. G., Henshaw, J. D., Longmore, S. N., Lu, X., Svoboda, B., Walker, D. L., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad10af · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Virial Clumps in Central Molecular Zone Clouds
Myers, P. C., Hatchfield, H. P., & Battersby, C. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac5906 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Orr, M. E., Hatchfield, H. P., Battersby, C., Hayward, C. C., Hopkins, P. F., Wetzel, A. R., Benincasa, S. M., Loebman, S., Sormani, M. C., & Klessen, R. S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abdebd · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Measuring Star Formation Rates in the Milky Way from Hi-GAL 70 μm Observations
Elia, D., Evans, N. J., Soler, J. D., Strafella, F., Schisano, E., Molinari, S., Giannetti, A., & Patra, S. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adaeb2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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Zoccali, M., Valenti, E., Surot, F., González, O. A., Renzini, A., & Navarro, Á. V. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab089 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Massive Young Stellar Objects in the Galactic Center. II. Seeing Through the Ice-rich Envelopes
Jang, D., An, D., Sellgren, K., Ramírez, S. V., Boogert, A. C. A., & Schultheis, M. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac5d51 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Living on the edge of the Milky Way's central molecular zone
Busch, L. A., Riquelme, D., Güsten, R., Menten, K. M., Pillai, T., & Kauffmann, J. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244870 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationAGN activity and nuclear starbursts: Sgr A* activity shapes the Central Molecular Zone
Zubovas, K. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1173 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Rawat, V., Samal, M. R., Walker, D. L., Zavagno, A., Tej, A., Marton, G., Ojha, D. K., Elia, D., Chen, W.-P., Jose, J., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad639 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
New Look at the Molecular Superbubble Candidate in the Galactic Center
Tsujimoto, S., Oka, T., Takekawa, S., Iwata, Y., Uruno, A., Yokozuka, H., Nakagawara, R., Watanabe, Y., Kawakami, A., Nishiyama, S., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abe61e · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Longmore, S. N., & Kruijssen, J. M. D. (2018) · Galaxies · doi:10.3390/galaxies6020055 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A Brief Update on the CMZoom Survey
Battersby, C., Keto, E., Zhang, Q., Longmore, S. N., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Pillai, T., Kauffmann, J., Walker, D. L., Lu, X., Ginsburg, A. G., et al. (2016) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316012266 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationDisc-halo gas outflows driven by stellar clusters as seen in multiwavelength tracers
Vasiliev, E. O., Drozdov, S. A., Nath, B. B., Dettmar, R. ‐., & Shchekinov, Y. A. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad309 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
WISE Green Objects (WGOs): The Massive Star Candidates in the Whole Galactic Plane (∣b∣ < 2°)
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MHD Simulation in Galactic Center Region with Radiative Cooling and Heating
Kakiuchi, K., Suzuki, T. K., Inutsuka, S., Inoue, T., & Shimoda, J. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3638 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Introducing the Rhea simulations of Milky Way-like galaxies
Göller, J., Girichidis, P., Brucy, N., Hunter, G. H., Kjellgren, K. I., Treß, R. G., Klessen, R. S., Glover, S. C. O., Hennebelle, P., Molinari, S., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452223 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Towards a multi-scale understanding of the gas-star formation cycle in the Central Molecular Zone
Kruijssen, J. M. D. (2016) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316012138 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Discovery of a Giant Molecular Loop in the Central Region of NGC 253
Konishi, R., Enokiya, R., Fukui, Y., Muraoka, K., Tokuda, K., & Onishi, T. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac58f7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evidence for powerful winds and the associated reverse shock as the origin of the Fermi bubbles
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A deep Hα survey of the Carina tangent arm direction
Russeil, D., Zavagno, A., Amram, P., Elia, D., Molinari, S., & Coarer, E. P. L. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346973 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ArH+ and H2O+ absorption towards luminous galaxies
Jacob, A. M., Menten, K. M., Wyrowski, F., Winkel, B., Neufeld, D. A., & Koribalski, B. S. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142544 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationDiffuse gamma-ray emission modeling and the Galactic center GeV excess
Malyshev, D. V. (2017) · Proceedings of 7th International Fermi Symposium — PoS(IFS2017) · doi:10.22323/1.312.0052
The EDGE-CALIFA Survey: influence of mergers on radial profiles of star-formation properties
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Modelling the non-equilibrium chemistry of the Milky Way’s cold nuclear wind
Noon, K. A., Krumholz, M. R., McClure‐Griffiths, N. M., Teodoro, E. M. D., & Armillotta, L. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag715
Mass Segregation in the CMZoom Survey
Schuler, S. F., Wallace, J., Battersby, C., Hatchfield, H. P., Gutermuth, R., Lu, X., Zhang, S., & Zhang, Q. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae6fb4
- Authors
- Immer, K., Schuller, F., Omont, A., & Menten, K. M.
- Affiliations
- Center for Astrophysics Harvard & Smithsonian (US)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy (DE)
- ORCID
- Omont, A.
- Venue
- Astronomy & Astrophysics
- Publisher
- EDP Sciences
- Published
- 2012-01
- Volume
- 537
- Pages
- A121
- ISSN
- 0004-6361 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-0746
- OpenAlex
- W2019112354
- Cited by
- 81
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 2.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Astronomy and Astrophysics (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Keywords
- star formation rate, Central Molecular Zone, Galactic bulge, mid-infrared spectroscopy, young stellar objects, source selection criteria, bolometric luminosity, Kroupa initial mass function, Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph
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