Effects of the Menstrual Cycle on Resting Muscle Glycogen Content
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Although lower muscle glycogen storage in the mid-follicular phase appears to be overcome by CHO loading, the greater intramuscular glycogen concentrations failed to translate into improved time trial performance.
“Although the lower level of muscle glycogen storage in the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle appears to be overcome by CHO loading, the greater intramuscular glycogen concentrations failed to translate into improved time trial performance [182,184].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [182]
Resting muscle glycogen in eumenorrheic female athletes may be reduced during the follicular phase.
“Resting muscle glycogen in eumenorrheic female athletes may be reduced during the follicular phase [182,183]”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [182]
CHO loading using a similar pattern and amount of carbohydrate intake during the mid-luteal phase fails to change resting muscle glycogen concentrations or only documents a modest increase of 13%, compared to what is generally reported for male athletes (18-47%) or female athletes during the follicular phase (17-31%).
“CHO loading using a similar pattern and amount of carbohydrate intake during the mid-luteal (ML) phase failed to change resting muscle glycogen concentrations [182] or only documented a modest increase (13%) [186] compared to what is generally reported for male athletes (18–47%) [185,187–191] or female athletes during the follicular phase (17–31%) [184,185].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [182]
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Oosthuyse, T., & Bosch, A. N. (2010) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/11317090-000000000-00000 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
HUNTER, S. K., S. ANGADI, S., BHARGAVA, A., HARPER, J., HIRSCHBERG, A. L., D. LEVINE, B., L. MOREAU, K., J. NOKOFF, N., STACHENFELD, N. S., & BERMON, S. (2023) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000003300 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Sims, S. T., & Heather, A. K. (2018) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep086797 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Oestrogens augment muscle glycogen storage capacity while also increasing free fatty acid availability and the use of oxidative pathways to use fatty acids as a fuel source (Hackney, 1990; Nicklas, Hackney, & Sharp, 1989).”
BackgroundGlucose kinetics and substrate oxidation during exercise in the follicular and luteal phases
Zderic, T. W., Coggan, A. R., & Ruby, B. C. (2001) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.90.2.447 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Regulation of exercise carbohydrate metabolism by estrogen and progesterone in women
D'Eon, T. M., Sharoff, C., Chipkin, S. R., Grow, D., Ruby, B. C., & Braun, B. (2002) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00271.2002 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Lebrun, C. M. (1993) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-199316060-00005 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Women at altitude: carbohydrate utilization during exercise at 4,300 m
Braun, B., Mawson, J. T., Muza, S. R., Dominick, S. B., Brooks, G. A., Horning, M. A., Rock, P. B., MOORE, L. G., Mazzeo, R. S., Ezeji-Okoye, S. C., et al. (2000) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.88.1.246 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Differences from men may be especially pronounced if women are studied during the midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle, when the concentrations of estrogen and progesterone are highest (2, 9, 16, 18, 33, 34).”
BackgroundThe Influence of Oral Contraceptives on Athletic Performance in Female Athletes
Burrows, M., & Peters, C. E. (2007) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-200737070-00001 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Isacco, L., Duché, P., & Boisseau, N. (2012) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/11598900-000000000-00000 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
MENSTRUAL CYCLE, CONTRACEPTION, AND PERFORMANCE
Frankovich, R. J., & Lebrun, C. M. (2000) · Clinics in Sports Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0278-5919(05)70202-7 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen content, and endurance performance in well-trained women
Walker, J. L., Heigenhauser, G. J. F., Hultman, E., & Spriet, L. L. (2000) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.88.6.2151 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Hackney (15) measured a higher resting muscle glycogen content in the LP compared with the FP (439 6 21 vs.”
BackgroundMattu, A. T., Iannetta, D., MacInnis, M. J., Doyle–Baker, P. K., & Murias, J. M. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13590 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
The Effect of the Phase of the Menstrual Cycle and the Birth Control Pill on Athletic Performance
Lebrun, C. M. (1994) · Clinics in Sports Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0278-5919(20)30339-2 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete
Sims, S. T., Kerksick, C. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Janse de Jonge, X. A. K., Hirsch, K. R., Arent, S. M., Hewlings, S. J., Kleiner, S. M., Bustillo, E., Tartar, J. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2023.2204066 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“Resting muscle glycogen in eumenorrheic female athletes may be reduced during the follicular phase [182,183] and carbohydrate loading (8.”
BackgroundNutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes.
Desbrow, B., Burd, N., Tarnopolsky, M., Moore, D., & Elliott-Sale, K. J. (2019) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition & Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0269 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Carbohydrate Loading and Female Endurance Athletes: Effect of Menstrual-Cycle Phase
McLay, R. T., Thomson, C. D., Williams, S. M., & Rehrer, N. J. (2007) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.17.2.189 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Hackney (9) observed that resting muscle glycogen was significantly greater in the midluteal (ML) phase than in the midfollicular (MF) phase of the menstrual cycle.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEffects of the menstrual cycle phase on the blood lactate responses to exercise
McCracken, M. A., Ainsworth, B. E., & Hackney, A. C. (1994) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/bf00609412 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationSubstrate metabolism during exercise: Sexual dimorphism and women’s specificities
Boisseau, N., & Isacco, L. (2022) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2021.1943713 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Oosthuyse, T., Strauss, J. A., & Hackney, A. C. (2022) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-022-05090-3 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“1989; Hackney 1990) and when following a normal mixed diet including ~ 5 g/kg carbohydrate (MF: 575 mmol/kg d.w. vs. ML: 728 mmol/kg d.w.) (McLay et al.”
Self-citationMeasuring Performance during the Menstrual Cycle: A Model Using Oral Contraceptives
Redman, L. M., & Weatherby, R. P. (2004) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000106181.52102.99 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations
Moore, D. R., Sygo, J., & Morton, J. P. (2022) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2021.1922508 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“A preliminary study in recreationally active non-OC users reported that resting glycogen concentration was marginally but statistically greater in the mid-luteal (ML) phase when compared with the mid-follicular (MF) phase (443 and 391 mmol.kg−1 dw, respectively) (Hackney, 1990).”
BackgroundResultMenstrual Cycle Hormonal Changes and Energy Substrate Metabolism in Exercising Women: A Perspective
Hackney, A. C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph181910024 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationD'Eon, T. M., & Braun, B. (2002) · Journal of Women s Health & Gender-Based Medicine · doi:10.1089/152460902753668439 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Hackney 31 performed muscle biopsies on the vastus lateralis muscle of 10 healthy women in the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle.”
Hunter, S. K., Angadi, S. S., Bhargava, A., Harper, J., Hirschberg, A. L., Levine, B. D., Moreau, K. L., Nokoff, N. J., Stachenfeld, N. S., & Bermon, S. (2023) · Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1249/tjx.0000000000000236 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Effects of Female Reproductive Hormones on Sports Performance
Lebrun, C. M., Joyce, S., & Constantini, N. (2013) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-314-5_16 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Estrogen and Substrate Metabolism
Ashley, C. D., Kramer, M. L., & Bishop, P. A. (2000) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-200029040-00001 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Energy Metabolism: A Female-Oriented Discussion
Sanchez, B. N., Volek, J. S., Kraemer, W. J., Sáenz, C., & Maresh, C. M. (2024) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-024-02063-8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The use of percutaneous muscle biopsies to determine muscle glycogen content also pointed toward a tendency to store more glycogen in the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase [16, 34].”
InfluentialIgonin, P.-H., Rogowski, I., Boisseau, N., & Martin, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084465 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the muscle glycogen content in vastus lateralis at rest is higher in the mid-luteal phase than in the mid-follicular phase [39].”
BackgroundGiacomoni, M., & Falgairette, G. (2000) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/001401300750003989 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“The glycogen-sparing property of oestradiol-17 b has been demonstrated in animals (Ahmed-Sorour and Bailey 1981) as well as in humans during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (Hackney 1990).”
BackgroundRecommendations for Healthy Nutrition in Female Endurance Runners: An Update
Deldicque, L., & Francaux, M. (2015) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2015.00017 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“However, confirming previous findings (77), lower resting glycogen levels were measured in the mid-follicular than in the mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in endurance athletes, which could fortunately be overcome by carbohydrate loading (76).”
ResultThe Latest on Carbohydrate Loading: A Practical Approach
Sedlock, D. A. (2008) · Current Sports Medicine Reports · doi:10.1249/jsr.0b013e31817ef9cb · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Women have higher uncompensated glycogen levels (11,30) and a greater capacity for storing glycogen (11,26) during the luteal phase than the follicular phase.”
BackgroundMaughan, R., McArthur, M. C., & Shirreffs, S. M. (1996) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsm.30.1.41 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Effect of a Synthetic Progestin on the Exercise Status of Sedentary Young Women
Redman, L. M., SCROOP, G. C., Westlander, G., & Norman, R. J. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-2401 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Juillard, E., Douchet, T., Païzis, C., & Babault, N. (2024) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports12010016 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“As mentioned above, the highest glycogen concentration during the luteal compared to the follicular phase [42] could be compensated for by the estrogen hormone [43].”
BackgroundConsiderations for Sex-Cognizant Research in Exercise Biology and Medicine
O’Bryan, S. M., Connor, K. R., Drummer, D. J., Lavin, K. M., & Bamman, M. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.903992 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…(male data) (Cartoni et al., 2005), leading to estrogenmediated signaling that results in increased ability to store glycogen in muscle while increasing free fatty acid availability and use through upregulation of oxidative pathways (Nicklas et al., 1989; Hackney, 1990; Sims and Heather, 2018).”
BackgroundWilliams, J. S., Stone, J. C., Masood, Z., Bostad, W., Gibala, M. J., & MacDonald, M. J. (2023) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00111.2023 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Substrate utilization during exercise in postmenopausal women on hormone replacement therapy
Johnson, L., Kraemer, R., Kraemer, G., Haltom, R., Cordill, A., A.Welsch, M., Durand, R., & Castracane, D. (2002) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-002-0686-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Two studies have reported that a glycogen-sparing effect in muscle (Hackney 1990) and lower R values (Nicklas et al. 1989) occur during the luteal phase when estrogen concentrations are high compared to the follicular phase when they are lower.”
BackgroundSex Hormones and Substrate Metabolism During Endurance Exercise
Isacco, L., & Boisseau, N. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44558-8_3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Effects of the Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraceptives on Sports Performance
Lebrun, C. M. (2000) · doi:10.1002/9780470757093.ch3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Peak Week Carbohydrate Manipulation Practices in Physique Athletes: A Narrative Review
Homer, K. A., Cross, M. R., & Helms, E. R. (2024) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00674-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Thus, muscle glycogen storage is theoretically elevated in the luteal phase compared to the early follicular phase [67]; however, large CHO loads have induced supercompensation to similar values in both menstrual phases in some trials [46, 71], but not in others [72, 73].”
BackgroundEFFECT OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE PHASE AND DIET ON BLOOD LACTATE RESPONSES TO EXERCISE.
Berend, J. Z., Brammeier, M. R., Jones, N., et al. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationMock, M. G., Hirsch, K. R., Blue, M. N. M., Trexler, E. T., Roelofs, E. J., & Smith-Ryan, A. E. (2021) · Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002560 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Previous studies suggest muscle glycogen storage capacity may vary across phases (12,20); however, CHO supplementation before (23) or during exercise (4) appears to eliminate the effects of menstrual cycle phase.”
BackgroundMatsuda, T., Takahashi, H., Nakamura, M., Ogata, H., Kanno, M., Ishikawa, A., & Sakamaki‐Sunaga, M. (2022) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000004306 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“This similarity in glycogen synthesis was contrary to our expectations and the findings of previous studies (1,7,13,22).”
BackgroundResultNutritional Strategies and Sex Hormone Interactions in Women
Rehrer, N. J., McLay-Cooke, R. T., & Sims, S. T. (2017) · Sex Hormones, Exercise and Women · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44558-8_6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Effects of Female Reproductive Hormones on Sports Performance
Lebrun, C. M., Joyce, S., & Constantini, N. (2020) · Contemporary Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33376-8_16 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
What we do and do not know about the menstrual cycle or, questions scientists could be asking
Harlow, S. D., & Ephross, S. A. (1995) · doi:10.31899/rh5.1012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fulco, C. S., Rock, P. B., Muza, S. R., Lammi, E., & Cymerman, A. (1998) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sex Hormones and Substrate Metabolism During Endurance Exercise
Isacco, L., & Boisseau, N. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21881-1_2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Menstrual Cycle and Physical Effort
Więcek, M. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.79675 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
McManus, L., Brady, A. J., & Egan, B. (2026) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2025-0164 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Carbohydrates Requirements for the Female Athlete
Burke, L. M., & Dziedzic, C. E. (2013) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b13743-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Matsuda, T., Ishikawa, A., Kanno, M., Ogata, H., Gam, H., Funaki, A., Ikegami, N., Yamada, M., & Sakamaki‐Sunaga, M. (2022) · Journal of Sports Science and Medicine · doi:10.52082/jssm.2022.191 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Several studies have identified differences in substrate utilization during rest, exercise, and recovery across different menstrual cycle phases (Nicklas et al., 1989; Hackney, 1990; D’Eon et al., 2002).”
BackgroundNutritional Strategies and Sex Hormone Interactions in Women
Rehrer, N. J., McLay-Cooke, R. T., & Sims, S. T. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21881-1_12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Clark, S. A. (1996) · Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University)
Carbohydrate loading in female endurance athletes: Effect of menstrual cycle phase
McLay-Cooke, R. T., Thomson, C. D., & Rehrer, N. J. (1999) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/s1440-2440(99)80051-6
Ling, C. M. (2002) · University Library - University of Saskatchewan (University of Saskatchewan)
Antero, J., & Meignié, A. (2022) · INSEP-Éditions eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.insep.3008
Adaptations énergétiques aux variations de poids et au statut hormonal ovarien chez les athlètes
Bagot, S. (2024) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/13a08bf4ze417z4cb4z80cfz47892200b6c8
- Authors
- Hackney, A.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hackney, A.
- Venue
- Hormone and Metabolic Research
- Publisher
- Georg Thieme Verlag KG
- Published
- 1990-12
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 647-647
- ISSN
- 0018-5043 (ISSN-L)
- 1439-4286
- OpenAlex
- W2094784365
- Cited by
- 59
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 1 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 0.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Hormone and Metabolic Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Keywords
- menstrual cycle, muscle glycogen, female athletes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Biopsy, Needle, Female, Glycogen, Humans, Menstrual Cycle, Muscles, Reference Values
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