The DOI matches its Crossref record; 52 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction
Open accessAbstract
This article reviews scientific advances in the prevention and treatment of substance-use disorder and related developments in public policy. In the past two decades, research has increasingly supported the view that addiction is a disease of the brain. Although the brain disease model of addiction has yielded effective preventive measures, treatment interventions, and public health policies to address substance-use disorders, the underlying concept of substance abuse as a brain disease continues to be questioned, perhaps because the aberrant, impulsive, and compulsive behaviors that are characteristic of addiction have not been clearly tied to neurobiology. Here we review recent advances in the neurobiology of addiction to clarify the link between addiction and brain function and to broaden the understanding of addiction as a brain disease. We review findings on the desensitization of reward circuits, which dampens the ability to feel pleasure and the motivation to pursue everyday activities; the increasing strength of conditioned responses and stress reactivity, which results in increased cravings for alcohol and other drugs and negative emotions when these cravings are not sated; and the weakening of the brain regions involved in executive functions such as decision making, inhibitory control, and self-regulation that leads to repeated relapse. We also review the ways in which social environments, developmental stages, and genetics are intimately linked to and influence vulnerability and recovery. We conclude that neuroscience continues to support the brain disease model of addiction. Neuroscience research in this area not only offers new opportunities for the prevention and treatment of substance addictions and related behavioral addictions (e.g., to food, sex, and gambling) but may also improve our understanding of the fundamental biologic processes involved in voluntary behavioral control. In the United States, 8 to 10% of people 12 years of age or older, or 20 to 22 million people, are addicted to alcohol or other drugs. 1 The abuse of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs in the United States exacts more than $700 billion annually in costs related to crime, lost work productivity, and health care. 2-4 After centuries of efforts to reduce addiction and its related costs by punishing addictive behaviors failed to produce adequate results, recent basic and clinical research has provided clear evidence that addiction might be better considered and treated as an acquired disease of the brain (see Box 1 for definitions of substance-use disorder and addiction). Research guided by the brain disease model of addiction has led to the development of more effective methods of prevention and treatment and to more informed public health policies. Notable examples include the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008, which requires medical insurance plans to provide the same coverage for substance-use disorders and other mental illnesses that is provided for other illnesses, 5 and the proposed bipartisan Senate legislation that From the National Institute on Drug Abuse (N.D.V.) and the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (G.F.K.) — both in Bethesda, MD; and the Treatment Research Institute, Philadelphia (A.T.M.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Volkow at the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 6001 Executive Bld., Rm. 5274, Bethesda, MD 20892, or at nvolkow@ nida . nih . gov.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“There is a growing consensus that SUDs, once developed, tend to be chronic disorders 161 , reflecting long- lasting changes in brain function 50,51 , that are exacerbated by the cumulative mental health and social consequences that they trigger.”
From Substance use disorders: a comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention (2023) · cites this paper as [50]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The transition from controlled drug use into addiction mani fests itself in a repetitive cycle of intoxication, withdrawal and craving 49 , occurring along with a deterioration of mood that the addicted individual experiences as dysphoria/depression, anxi ety, irritability and anhedonia when not intoxicated 50 .”
From Substance use disorders: a comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention (2023) · cites this paper as [50]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Animal models have shown that both ethanol intake and anticipation prompt dopamine release in the NAc, impacting the mesocorticolimbic system associated with craving, reward, and behavioral control”
From A Narrative Review of Current and Emerging Trends in the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [111]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“emerging evidence has pointed out that addiction is in fact associated with structural and functional brain alterations, including deficits in reward, attention, memory and motivation mechanisms (3)”
From Addiction Psychotherapy: Going Beyond Self-Medication (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Further research demonstrated the reciprocal nature of these neurobiological deficits, suggesting that they serve both as a cause for addiction, in predisposing individuals toward the onset of addiction, and as the effect of addiction, in further altering some neurobiological mechanisms, and even genetics, following intensive and prolonged intoxication (4).”
From Addiction Psychotherapy: Going Beyond Self-Medication (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Case–control neuroimaging studies of the brain with high-resolution provide early evidence for altered brain integrity in brain regions with a high density of CB1 receptors in heavy cannabis users [75].”
From Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: a review of evidence on risks and medical benefits (2025) · cites this paper as [75]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The primary subcortical brain target is the nucleus accumbens (NAc) which is considered the center of the reward circuitry and heavily implicated in substance use and craving [18–22].”
In the citing paper
“CRH affects hormones involved in the stress response, including cortisol, and has been associated with the stress response and relapse to drug taking in animals39,40.”
From Association studies of up to 1.2 million individuals yield new insights into the genetic etiology of tobacco and alcohol use (2019) · cites this paper as [40]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x · Cited by 10,854
Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/13158 · Cited by 5,552
Koob, G. F., & Volkow, N. D. (2010) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.110 · Cited by 5,340
Self-citationBardo, M. T., & Hammer, R. P. (1991) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/0306-4522(91)90226-e · Cited by 3,229
Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging findings and clinical implications
Goldstein, R. Z., & Volkow, N. D. (2011) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3119 · Cited by 2,749
Self-citationGetting formal with dopamine and reward
Schultz, W. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00967-4 · Cited by 2,574
Phasic vs Sustained Fear in Rats and Humans: Role of the Extended Amygdala in Fear vs Anxiety
Davis, M., Walker, D. L., Miles, L., & Grillon, C. (2010) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.109 · Cited by 1,513
Synaptic plasticity and addiction
Kauer, J. A., & Malenka, R. C. (2007) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2234 · Cited by 1,397
The brain on drugs: from reward to addiction
Volkow, N. D., & Morales, M. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.046 · Cited by 1,306
Self-citationCocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine addiction
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Telang, F., Fowler, J. S., Logan, J., Childress, A.-R., Jayne, M., Ma, Y., & Wong, C. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1544-06.2006 · Cited by 1,164
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Busch SH, 2014, Am J Manag Care, 20, 76
- 10.15288/jsads.2014.75.108 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 1,002
Effects of cannabinoids on resting state functional brain connectivity: A systematic review
Lorenzetti, V., Gaillard, A., Thomson, D., Englund, A., & Freeman, T. P. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.105014 · Cited by 20
“These trends are concerning: THC has addictive (Volkow et al., 2016), intoxicating (Curran et al.”
Establishing connectivity through microdissections of midbrain stimulation-related neural circuits
Skandalakis, G. P., Neudorfer, C., Payne, C. A., Bond, E. S., Tavakkoli, A. D., Barrios‐Martinez, J., Trutti, A. C., Koutsarnakis, C., Coenen, V. A., Komaitis, S., et al. (2024) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awae173 · Cited by 17
“132 The extended amygdala plays a significant role in processes related to fear, anxiety and addiction 133 and receives inputs from the rostral zona incerta, 134 which was recently suggested as a potential DBS target for OCD.”
BackgroundHaque, L., & Leggio, L. (2024) · Hepatology · doi:10.1097/hep.0000000000000996 · Cited by 19
“[72,74,75] AUD, including alcohol addiction, is featured by loss of control over alcohol drinking and is accompanied by changes in brain regions (including but not limited to, eg, midbrain, limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala) that are implicated in pathways and circuitry underlying reward…”
Cabral, D. A. R., da Costa, K. G., Okano, A. H., Elsangedy, H. M., Soares-Rachetti, V. D. P., & Fontes, E. B. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2017.08.004 · Cited by 17
Vijayaraghavan, M., Olsen, P., Weeks, J., McKelvey, K., Ponath, C., & Kushel, M. (2017) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/0890117117729928 · Cited by 17
Value, drug addiction and the brain
Loganathan, K., & Ho, E. T. W. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106816 · Cited by 18
Karila, L., & Benyamina, A. (2019) · Revue des Maladies Respiratoires · doi:10.1016/j.rmr.2018.12.001 · Cited by 17
Padovano, H. T., & Miranda, R. (2018) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2018.79.190 · Cited by 18
Lorenzetti, V., Kowalczyk, M., Duehlmeyer, L., Greenwood, L.-M., Chye, Y., Yücel, M., Whittle, S., & Roberts, C. A. (2023) · Cannabis & Cannabinoid Research · doi:10.1089/can.2021.0099 · Cited by 17
“Indeed, previous evidence 32,33,57 and neuroscientific theories of addiction 58,59 show that neural alterations occur in samples with more chronic levels of cannabis use and with greater severity of cannabis dependence.”
Goal-directed and habitual decision making under stress in gambling disorder: An fMRI study
van Timmeren, T., Piray, P., Goudriaan, A. E., & van Holst, R. J. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107628 · Cited by 18
“Addiction is commonly defined as a chronic, relapsing neurobiological disease characterized by compulsive addictive behaviors despite negative consequences (Volkow, Koob, & McLellan, 2016).”
Theory-driven computational models of drug addiction in humans: Fruitful or futile?
Lim, T. V., & Ersche, K. D. (2023) · Addiction Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.addicn.2023.100066 · Cited by 16
Intrusive thinking: Circuit and synaptic mechanisms of a transdiagnostic psychiatric symptom
Kalivas, P. W., Gourley, S. L., & Paulus, M. P. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105196 · Cited by 17
Earnshaw, V. A., Mousavi, M., Qiu, X., & Fox, A. B. (2025) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081423-023228 · Cited by 19
Hakimian, J. K., Minasyan, A., Zhe-Ying, L., Loureiro, M., Beltrand, A., Johnston, C. R., Vorperian, A., Romaneschi, N., Atallah, W., Gómez‐Pinilla, F., et al. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175090 · Cited by 16
The Benefits of High Intensity Exercise on the Brain of a Drug Abuser
Cabral, D. A. R., Tavares, V. D. D. O., da Costa, K. G., Nascimento, P., Faro, H., Elsangedy, H. M., & Fontes, E. B. (2018) · Global Journal of Health Science · doi:10.5539/gjhs.v10n6p123 · Cited by 16
Expression and localization of CB1R, NAPE-PLD, and FAAH in the vervet monkey nucleus accumbens
Kucera, R., Bouskila, J., Elkrief, L., Fink‐Jensen, A., Palmour, R. M., Bouchard, J., & Ptito, M. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26826-2 · Cited by 16
Chen, S., Huang, S., Yang, C., Cai, W., Chen, H., Hao, W., Liu, T., Wang, X., Worhunsky, P. D., & Potenza, M. N. (2019) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyz069 · Cited by 16
Eaves, E. R., Trotter, R. T., & Baldwin, J. A. (2020) · Human Organization · doi:10.17730/1938-3525-79.4.292 · Cited by 16
The Gender Achievement Gap: Do Teacher–Student Relationships Matter?
Goldie, P. D., & O’Connor, E. E. (2021) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn26.2.139 · Cited by 19
Drastichová, Z., Hejnová, L., Trubacova, R., & Novotný, J. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11070683 · Cited by 16
Güngör, E. S., Çelebi, C., & Akvardar, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.747474 · Cited by 17
“It is stated that DSM-IV substance dependence diagnosis corresponds to severe substance use disorder of the DSM-5 (51).”
BackgroundMosri, D. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.761744 · Cited by 16
“The negative reinforcement hypothesis (9), also known as the dark side of addiction (38, 39), has been proposed as a powerful”
BackgroundBaglivio, M. T., Wolff, K. T., Piquero, A. R., DeLisi, M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2017) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854817714810 · Cited by 22
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: Re-wiring the alcoholic human brain
Diana, M., Bolloni, C., Antonelli, M., Giuda, D. D., Cocciolillo, F., Fattore, L., & Addolorato, G. (2018) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2018.05.011 · Cited by 16
Weil, Z. M., Karelina, K., & Corrigan, J. D. (2019) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.03.012 · Cited by 16
Fear conditioning and extinction in alcohol dependence: Evidence for abnormal amygdala reactivity
Muench, C., Charlet, K., Balderston, N. L., Grillon, C., Heilig, M. A., Cortes, C. R., Momenan, R., & Lohoff, F. W. (2019) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12835 · Cited by 21
Rosenthal, A., Beck, A., Zois, E., Vollstädt‐Klein, S., Walter, H., Kiefer, F., Lohoff, F. W., & Charlet, K. (2019) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14211 · Cited by 16
Crosstalk between alcohol use disorder and obesity: two sides of the same coin?
Leggio, L., Farokhnia, M., Kenny, P. J., Pepino, M. Y., & Simmons, W. K. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03259-8 · Cited by 17
Tang, Z., Zhu, Z. A., & Xu, J. (2022) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/10998004221122522 · Cited by 16
“…of the library to date, concentrating on publications from 2017 to 2020, including 5 master’s theses (Feng, 2018; He, 2019; Leng, 2019; Liu, 2019; Wang, 2019), 1 doctoral thesis (Su, 2017), and the remaining 7 journal papers (Chen, Su, Li, et al., 2020; L. Liu et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2017;…”
BackgroundKetogenic diet: a potential adjunctive treatment for substance use disorders
Kong, D., Sun, J., Yang, J.-Q., Li, Y.-S., Bi, K., Zhang, Z., Wang, K., Luo, H.-Y., Zhu, M. J., & Xu, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1191903 · Cited by 17
“Substance use disorders (SUD) are chronically relapsing conditions characterized by compulsive substance-seeking, lack of control in restricting intake, and the development of negative emotions during withdrawal (1).”
BackgroundDisrupted brain state dynamics in opioid and alcohol use disorder: attenuation by nicotine use
Zhang, R., Yan, W., Manza, P., Kojori, E. S., Demiral, Ş. B., Schwandt, M. L., Vines, L., Sotelo, D., Tomasi, D. G., Giddens, N. T., et al. (2023) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01750-w · Cited by 16
“Therefore, our fi ndings may re fl ect a mixture of short and long-term neuroadaptations associated with physical dependence and withdrawal and more persistent ones associated with addiction [29, 30].”
Self-citationAcuff, S. F., Ellis, J. D., Rabinowitz, J. A., Hochheimer, M., Hobelmann, J. G., Huhn, A. S., & Strickland, J. C. (2024) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.111092 · Cited by 15
Elatfy, A., Vrahimis, S., Conti, A. A., & Baldacchino, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1384408 · Cited by 16
“In the context of neurocognition, exposure to nicotine, either directly or indirectly, has been associated with neurobiological changes (21, 39, 60, 61).”
BackgroundAddiction and the Concept of Disorder, Part 1: Why Addiction is a Medical Disorder
Wakefield, J. C. (2016) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-016-9300-9 · Cited by 15
Integration of Transcendental Meditation® (TM) into alcohol use disorder (AUD) treatment
Gryczynski, J., Schwartz, R. P., Fishman, M. J., Nordeck, C. D., Grant, J., Nidich, S. I., Rothenberg, S., & O’Grady, K. E. (2018) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2018.01.009 · Cited by 16
Peters, L., & Soyka, M. (2018) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000494697 · Cited by 15
Best Practices for Pregnant Incarcerated Women With Opioid Use Disorder
Peeler, M., Fiscella, K. A., Terplan, M., & Sufrin, C. (2019) · Journal of Correctional Health Care · doi:10.1177/1078345818819855 · Cited by 15
Zielinski, M., Bradshaw, S. D., Mullet, N. D., Hawkins, L. G., Shumway, S. T., & Chavez, M. S. (2019) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.12905 · Cited by 15
Frank, D. W., Cinciripini, P. M., Deweese, M. M., Karam‐Hage, M., Kypriotakis, G., Lerman, C. E., Robinson, J. D., Tyndale, R. F., Vidrine, D. J., & Versace, F. (2019) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntz211 · Cited by 16
Cuesta, U., Niño, J. I. M., Martínez, L. M., & Paredes, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02132 · Cited by 15
How individuals make choices explains addiction’s distinctive, non-eliminable features
Heyman, G. M. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112899 · Cited by 15
Kwon, E., Hummer, T. A., Andrews, K. D., Finn, P., Aalsma, M. C., Bailey, A., Hanquier, J. N., Wang, T., & Hulvershorn, L. A. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108498 · Cited by 15
“Research with both resting state and task-based functional connectivity has established that addiction risk is associated with the maturation of cortical executive control and reward responsivity (Volkow et al., 2016).”
BackgroundCrane, N. A., & Phan, K. L. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108565 · Cited by 15
“…to increase dopamine transmission in the striatum (Fernandez-Ruiz et al., 2010), which is known to play an important role in the rewarding effect of drugs, the development of want or desire for the drug, and the development of drugseeking habits (see Koob and Le Moal, 1997; Koob and Volkow, 2016).”
BackgroundToward an Integrative Conceptualization of Maladaptive Consumer Behavior
Clithero, J. A., Karmarkar, U. R., & Hsu, M. (2021) · Journal of the Association for Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/714364 · Cited by 15
Brand, M., & Potenza, M. N. (2021) · SUCHT - Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Praxis / Journal of Addiction Research and Practice · doi:10.1024/0939-5911/a000721 · Cited by 17
Implementing adolescent SBIRT: Findings from the FaCES project
Soberay, A., DeSorrento, L., Pietruszewski, P., Sitz, M., & Levy, S. (2021) · Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/08897077.2020.1846662 · Cited by 15
Ayu, A. P., Dijkstra, B. M., Golbach, M., de Jong, C. A. J., & Schellekens, A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164262 · Cited by 15
Padovano, H. T., Celio, M. A., Lisman, S. A., Miranda, R., & SPEAR, L. P. (2016) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.009 · Cited by 16
Separating Models Obscures the Scientific Underpinnings of Sex Addiction as a Disorder
Carnes, S., & Love, T. (2017) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-017-1072-8 · Cited by 15
Joint statement on dual disorders: Addiction and other mental disorders
Szerman, N., Sociedad Española de Patología Dual, M., Martı́nez-Raga, J., Baler, R., Roncero, C., Vega, P., Basurte-Villamor, I., Grau‐López, L., Torrens, M., Casas, M., et al. (2017) · Salud Mental · doi:10.17711/sm.0185-3325.2017.031 · Cited by 15
Sokol, R. G., & Shaughnessy, A. F. (2018) · Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions · doi:10.1097/ceh.0000000000000199 · Cited by 15
A Combination of Impulsivity Subdomains Predict Alcohol Intoxication Frequency
O’Halloran, L., Pennie, B., Jollans, L., Kiiski, H. S. M., Vahey, N. A., Rai, L. A., Bradley, L., Lalor, R., & Whelan, R. (2018) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.13779 · Cited by 17
Miller, T. R., Halkitis, P. N., & Durvasula, R. (2018) · Ageing International · doi:10.1007/s12126-018-9333-y · Cited by 18
Weaker Memory Performance Exacerbates Stress-Induced Cannabis Craving in Youths’ Daily Lives
Miranda, R., Wemm, S., Padovano, H. T., Carpenter, R. W., Emery, N. N., Gray, J. C., & Mereish, E. H. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619841976 · Cited by 15
The nexus of opioids, pain, and addiction: Challenges and solutions
Henningfield, J. E., Ashworth, J., Gerlach, K. K., Simone, B., & Schnoll, S. H. (2019) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.105852 · Cited by 16
Liu, X., Zhao, X., Shen, Y., Liu, T., Liu, Q., Tang, L., Zhang, H., Luo, W., & Yuan, T. (2020) · Clinical and Translational Medicine · doi:10.1002/ctm2.48 · Cited by 15
“First, in MA patients, the altered prefrontal cortical functions accompany reduced executive control and the expression of craving.(6,7) rTMS treatments result in restoration of the prefrontal functioning, and might disrupt the neural substrate for craving expression even when drug-associated cues are present.”
BackgroundLeone, F. T., & Evers‐Casey, S. (2021) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2021.08.011 · Cited by 15
Christensen, M. R., Anderson‐White, E., Ryan, L. J., Ricardo, M. M., Krembuszewski, B. A., Sze, C., & Henderson, C. E. (2021) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118686089.ch11 · Cited by 15
Barnett (2024) · doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0010 · Cited by 13
“…37 have been offered as potential transdiagnostic therapeutic targets of psychedelics in both mood and substance use disorders, where negative affect 38,39 and cognitive flexibil-ity 40–42 disruptions can be considered key components of the development and maintenance of both families of disorders.”
Towards a dispositionalist (and unifying) account of addiction
Kelly, R. (2022) · Metamedicine · doi:10.1007/s11017-022-09596-x · Cited by 14
“Nora Volkow argues that addiction is a brain disease [35, 36, 45, 46, 52].”
BackgroundJensen, M. E., Klausen, M. K., Bergmann, M., Knudsen, G. M., Vilsbøll, T., Stove, C. P., & Fink‐Jensen, A. (2025) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.70041 · Cited by 14
Garland, E. L., Hudak, J., Hanley, A. W., Bernat, E. M., & Froeliger, B. (2025) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.0569 · Cited by 13
Zhang, X., Zhang, H., Shao, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, H., & Zhang, H. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03396-2 · Cited by 14
“The striatum, particularly the nucleus accumbens, is central to reward processing and has been consistently implicated in the compulsive aspects of SUD [15].”
Bujedo, J. G., Lozano, O. M., Pérez-Moreno, P. J., Marín, J. A. L., Fernández‐Calderón, F., Díaz, C., & Barreno, E. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.566240 · Cited by 15
“Such emotions could appear in patients with addiction resulting from adaptations in the extended amygdala circuits (68).”
BackgroundMurray, L., Welsh, J. C., Johnson, C. G., Kaiser, R. H., Farchione, T. J., & Janes, A. C. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109462 · Cited by 15
Deveci, E., Akbaş, F., Ergun, A. S., Kurtulmuş, A., Koçak, A. B., Boyraz, R. K., Tok, O. E., Aydın, M. Ş., Kılıç, Ö., Bozkurt, A., et al. (2022) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-022-03130-9 · Cited by 15
Zwolinski, N., Patel, K., Vadivelu, N., Kodumudi, G., & Kaye, A. D. (2023) · Current Pain and Headache Reports · doi:10.1007/s11916-023-01108-3 · Cited by 14
“Substance use disorder leads to chronic diseases of the brain [23].”
BackgroundMethamphetamine dependence in Australia–why is ‘ice’ (crystal meth) so addictive?
Scott, R. J. (2023) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2023.2206870 · Cited by 15
“With prolonged exposure, the rewarding effects of the substance decreases as reflected by hypo-activation within the reward regions of the ventral striatum and over-active stress-systems reflected by amygdala hyperactivation (Volkow et al., 2016).”
Shukla, L., Shivaprakash, P., & Kumar, M. S. (2023) · The Indian Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1930_23 · Cited by 14
Huang, S., & Riley, A. L. (2024) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173848 · Cited by 14
Ho, A., & Nair, S. (2018) · Developments in neuroethics and bioethics · doi:10.1016/bs.dnb.2018.08.009 · Cited by 15
Beurmanjer, H., Asperslag, E. M., Oliemeulen, L., Goudriaan, A. E., de Jong, C. A. J., Schellekens, A., & Dijkstra, B. A. G. (2019) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000500807 · Cited by 14
Reuter, Q. R., Smith, G., McKinnon, J., Varley, J. D., Jouriles, N. J., & Seaberg, D. C. (2020) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.13921 · Cited by 14
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation as an Interventional Tool for Addiction
Steele, V. R. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.592343 · Cited by 14
“One such disease that is manifest by dysregulated circuits is substance use disorder (SUD) (Volkow et al., 2016).”
BackgroundDeng, Y., Hou, L., Chen, X., & Zhou, R. (2020) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135513 · Cited by 16
Sharp, A., Carlson, M., Howell, V., Moore, K. A., & Schuman‐Olivier, Z. (2020) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108247 · Cited by 14
Targeting Epigenetic Mechanisms to Treat Alcohol Use Disorders (AUD)
Rodriguez, F. D. (2021) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612827666210203142539 · Cited by 15
Kearney-Ramos, T. E., & Haney, M. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110290 · Cited by 12
Li, W., Wang, L., Lyu, Z., Chen, J., Li, Y., Sun, Y.-C., Zhu, J., Wang, W., Wang, Y., & Li, Q. (2022) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113752 · Cited by 14
Neuroscientific Approaches to (Online) Pornography Addiction
Stark, R. M., & Klucken, T. (2017) · Studies in neuroscience, psychology and behavioral economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46276-9_7 · Cited by 15
Ghrelin receptor antagonism of hyperlocomotion in cocaine‐sensitized mice requires βarrestin‐2
Tóth, K., Slosky, L. M., Pack, T. F., Urs, N. M., Boone, P. G., Mao, L., Abraham, D., Caron, M. G., & Barak, L. S. (2017) · Synapse · doi:10.1002/syn.22012 · Cited by 14
Addiction: Informing drug abuse interventions with brain networks
Steele, V. R., Ding, X., & Ross, T. J. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813838-0.00006-6 · Cited by 14
Libuy, N., Ibáñez, C. F., & Mundt, A. P. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100260 · Cited by 15
“On the one hand, there are genetic and neurodevelopmental risk factors (Koob & Volkow, 2016; N. D. Volkow, Koob, & McLellan, 2016); on the other hand, there are potentially modifiable environmental risk factors of cannabis use (Chadi, Bagley, & Hadland, 2018; Harrop & Catalano, 2016).”
BackgroundHavnes, I. A., & Skogheim, T. S. (2020) · Journal of Extreme Anthropology · doi:10.5617/jea.7046 · Cited by 14
Aroni, S., Marino, R. A. M., Girven, K. S., Irving, J. M., Cheer, J. F., & Sparta, D. R. (2021) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108527 · Cited by 14
“Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a progressive and persistent disease characterized by frequent cycles of binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect and preoccupation/anticipation (“craving”) (Volkow et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAdolescent internet gaming disorder and sensitivity to money and social rewards
Wang, Y., Li, Y., Liu, B., Zhao, X., Geng, X., Zhu, W., & Ding, X. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104431 · Cited by 13
Goldston, D. B., Curry, J. F., Wells, K. C., Kaminer, Y., Daniel, S. S., Esposito-Smythers, C., Doyle, O., Sapyta, J., Tunno, A. M., Heilbron, N., et al. (2021) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2021.1888664 · Cited by 13
Crisis, what crisis? Addiction neuroscience and the challenges of translation
McLean, S., & Rose, N. (2020) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16265.1 · Cited by 15
Rashid, A. A., Suppiah, S., Nasser, N. S., Sharifat, H., Mohamad, M., Loh, J. L., Ibrahim, B., Ibrahim, N. S. N., Azmi, N. H. M., Rahim, E. B. A., et al. (2021) · Neuroscience Research Notes · doi:10.31117/neuroscirn.v4i4.107 · Cited by 12
“Nonetheless, image processing software can gauge alterations in regional brain activations during rest, particularly in brain nodes involving the default mode network (DMN), salience network or dorsal attention network (DAN), and the limbic network.”
BackgroundInfluentialFlorence, L. L. A., Lassi, D. L. S., Kortas, G. T., Lima, D. R., Périco, C. D. A.-M., de Andrade, A. G., Torales, J. C., Ventriglio, A., Berardis, D. D., Aquino, J. P. D., et al. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12030386 · Cited by 13
“A wealth of evidence indicates that neurobiological abnormalities play an essential role in the development and maintenance of AUD, as well as in the recovery from this condition [4,5].”
BackgroundThe Effect of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Impulsivity in Addictive Disorders: a Narrative Review
Loya, J. M., Benitez, B., & Kiluk, B. D. (2023) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-023-00491-6 · Cited by 15
Lewin‐Epstein, O., Jaques, Y., Feldman, M. W., Kaufer, D., & Hadany, L. (2023) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-023-05099-0 · Cited by 13
Biological aging markers in blood and brain tissue indicate age acceleration in alcohol use disorder
Zillich, L., Cetin, M., Hummel, E. M., Poisel, E., Fries, G. R., Frank, J., Streit, F., Foo, J. C., Sirignano, L., Friske, M. M., et al. (2024) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.15241 · Cited by 15
“Furthermore, SUDs are primarily considered as brain disorders and different brain regions have been associated with the development and maintenance of addiction phenotypes (Volkow et al., 2016), altogether highlighting the importance of investigating biological aging markers directly in the brain.”
BackgroundSharma, P., Shenoy, A., Shroff, H., Kwong, A. J., Lim, N., Pillai, A. A., Devuni, D., Haque, L., Balliet, W. E., & Serper, M. (2024) · Liver Transplantation · doi:10.1097/lvt.0000000000000362 · Cited by 13
Carlini, L. E., Fernandez, A. C., & Mellinger, J. L. (2024) · Hepatology · doi:10.1097/hep.0000000000000905 · Cited by 13
Dong, Y., Gan, Y., Fu, Y., Shi, H., Dai, S., Yu, R., Li, X., Zhang, K., Wang, F., Yuan, T., et al. (2024) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01869-4 · Cited by 13
“These results suggest that the anti-addictive effects of treadmill exercise cannot be attributed to generating rewarding effects through mesolimbic DA system regulation.”
Imperio, C. G., LEVIN, F. R., & Martínez, D. (2024) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20231023 · Cited by 15
The identification and management of substance use disorders in anesthesiologists
Lefebvre, L. G., & Kaufmann, I. M. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-016-0775-y · Cited by 13
Barral, C., Daigre, C., Bachiller, D., Calvo, N., Ros‐Cucurull, E., Gancedo, B., Grau‐López, L., Ferrer, M., Casas, M., & Roncero, C. (2016) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1080/10550887.2016.1274594 · Cited by 13
Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment to Evaluate People with Addictions
Mota, G. R., Pérez, E. J. P., de León, J. M. R. S., León-Frade, I., Aldea-Poyo, P., Alonso-Rodríguez, M., Pedrero-Aguilar, J., & Morales-Alonso, S. (2017) · Occupational Therapy International · doi:10.1155/2017/2750328 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Volkow, N. D., Koob, G. F., & McLellan, A. T.
- Affiliations
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (US)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (US)
- Treatment Research Institute (US)
- Venue
- New England Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Massachusetts Medical Society
- Published
- 2016-01-28
- Volume
- 374
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 363-371
- ISSN
- 0028-4793 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-4406
- PMC
- PMC6135257
- OpenAlex
- W2283026346
- Cited by
- 2,008
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 264 · 2025: 198 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 193 · 2022: 179 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 245 · 2019: 160 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 178 · 2016: 54
- FWCI
- 19.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- New England Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99‐AA999999)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
- Keywords
- brain disease model of addiction, neurobiology of addiction, substance use disorders, conditioned response, stress reactivity, drug craving, executive function, relapse, behavioral addiction, addiction genetics, social environment, addiction prevention, addiction treatment, public health policy, Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act
- MeSH terms
- Brain Diseases, Humans, Models, Neurological, Substance Withdrawal Syndrome, Substance-Related Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
