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Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction
Open accessAbstract
This article reviews scientific advances in the prevention and treatment of substance-use disorder and related developments in public policy. In the past two decades, research has increasingly supported the view that addiction is a disease of the brain. Although the brain disease model of addiction has yielded effective preventive measures, treatment interventions, and public health policies to address substance-use disorders, the underlying concept of substance abuse as a brain disease continues to be questioned, perhaps because the aberrant, impulsive, and compulsive behaviors that are characteristic of addiction have not been clearly tied to neurobiology. Here we review recent advances in the neurobiology of addiction to clarify the link between addiction and brain function and to broaden the understanding of addiction as a brain disease. We review findings on the desensitization of reward circuits, which dampens the ability to feel pleasure and the motivation to pursue everyday activities; the increasing strength of conditioned responses and stress reactivity, which results in increased cravings for alcohol and other drugs and negative emotions when these cravings are not sated; and the weakening of the brain regions involved in executive functions such as decision making, inhibitory control, and self-regulation that leads to repeated relapse. We also review the ways in which social environments, developmental stages, and genetics are intimately linked to and influence vulnerability and recovery. We conclude that neuroscience continues to support the brain disease model of addiction. Neuroscience research in this area not only offers new opportunities for the prevention and treatment of substance addictions and related behavioral addictions (e.g., to food, sex, and gambling) but may also improve our understanding of the fundamental biologic processes involved in voluntary behavioral control. In the United States, 8 to 10% of people 12 years of age or older, or 20 to 22 million people, are addicted to alcohol or other drugs. 1 The abuse of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs in the United States exacts more than $700 billion annually in costs related to crime, lost work productivity, and health care. 2-4 After centuries of efforts to reduce addiction and its related costs by punishing addictive behaviors failed to produce adequate results, recent basic and clinical research has provided clear evidence that addiction might be better considered and treated as an acquired disease of the brain (see Box 1 for definitions of substance-use disorder and addiction). Research guided by the brain disease model of addiction has led to the development of more effective methods of prevention and treatment and to more informed public health policies. Notable examples include the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008, which requires medical insurance plans to provide the same coverage for substance-use disorders and other mental illnesses that is provided for other illnesses, 5 and the proposed bipartisan Senate legislation that From the National Institute on Drug Abuse (N.D.V.) and the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (G.F.K.) — both in Bethesda, MD; and the Treatment Research Institute, Philadelphia (A.T.M.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Volkow at the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 6001 Executive Bld., Rm. 5274, Bethesda, MD 20892, or at nvolkow@ nida . nih . gov.
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“There is a growing consensus that SUDs, once developed, tend to be chronic disorders 161 , reflecting long- lasting changes in brain function 50,51 , that are exacerbated by the cumulative mental health and social consequences that they trigger.”
From Substance use disorders: a comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention (2023) · cites this paper as [50]
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“The transition from controlled drug use into addiction mani fests itself in a repetitive cycle of intoxication, withdrawal and craving 49 , occurring along with a deterioration of mood that the addicted individual experiences as dysphoria/depression, anxi ety, irritability and anhedonia when not intoxicated 50 .”
From Substance use disorders: a comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention (2023) · cites this paper as [50]
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“Animal models have shown that both ethanol intake and anticipation prompt dopamine release in the NAc, impacting the mesocorticolimbic system associated with craving, reward, and behavioral control”
From A Narrative Review of Current and Emerging Trends in the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [111]
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“emerging evidence has pointed out that addiction is in fact associated with structural and functional brain alterations, including deficits in reward, attention, memory and motivation mechanisms (3)”
From Addiction Psychotherapy: Going Beyond Self-Medication (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
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“Further research demonstrated the reciprocal nature of these neurobiological deficits, suggesting that they serve both as a cause for addiction, in predisposing individuals toward the onset of addiction, and as the effect of addiction, in further altering some neurobiological mechanisms, and even genetics, following intensive and prolonged intoxication (4).”
From Addiction Psychotherapy: Going Beyond Self-Medication (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
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“Case–control neuroimaging studies of the brain with high-resolution provide early evidence for altered brain integrity in brain regions with a high density of CB1 receptors in heavy cannabis users [75].”
From Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: a review of evidence on risks and medical benefits (2025) · cites this paper as [75]
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“The primary subcortical brain target is the nucleus accumbens (NAc) which is considered the center of the reward circuitry and heavily implicated in substance use and craving [18–22].”
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“CRH affects hormones involved in the stress response, including cortisol, and has been associated with the stress response and relapse to drug taking in animals39,40.”
From Association studies of up to 1.2 million individuals yield new insights into the genetic etiology of tobacco and alcohol use (2019) · cites this paper as [40]
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“Regions were selected a priori, based on their involvement in drug reward, anxiety-like behaviors, and previous work demonstrating age- and region-specific effects of nicotine exposure on neuronal activity (reviewed in Marchand, 2010; Yuan et al., 2015; Volkow et al., 2016; Xia and Kheirbek, 2020).”
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“Of relevance to SUDs, the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway from ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA cell bodies to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a chief mediator of the rewarding properties of misused drugs and drugassociated cues (for review) (Volkow et al., 2016).”
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“Another reason for the low effect may be the strength of the substance abuse, often considered as a chronic disease (e.g., Volkow et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLoss of habenular Prkar2a reduces hedonic eating and increases exercise motivation
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“…has been shown to exert widespread neuropsychopharmacological effects, such that whilst low doses activate the dopaminergic “reward” system in the dorsal striatum, higher doses appear to inhibit activity in prefrontal brain regions associated with executive functioning (Volkow et al., 2016).”
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“Indeed, AUD and CUD are associated with a number of co-morbid psychiatric conditions (85, 86).”
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“32,33 A core feature across addictive disorders is aberrationsintherewardcircuitryinthebrain, 33 specifically,themeso-corticolimbic dopamine system, which includes the striatum.”
Alloy, L. B., Chat, I. K.-Y., Grehl, M. M., Stephenson, A. R., Adogli, Z. V., Olino, T. M., Ellman, L. M., Miller, G. E., & Nusslock, R. (2023) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2023.100643 · Cited by 11
“…that can wind up further increasing inflammation, including substance use (Bart et al., 2021; Büchel et al., 2017; Chat et al., 2021; 2023; Volkow et al., 2016), consuming a high-fat/high-sugar diet (Bastard et al., 2006; Volkow et al., 2008, 2012), neglect of normal sleep schedules…”
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“Proponents of the disease model argue that acceptance of SUD as a disease will result in a public health-focused response that increases access to evidence-based treatment and reduces stigma (Volkow et al., 2016).”
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“…within health communication campaigns to reduce stereotypes about the controllability of substance use disorders (sUDs) and stigma toward patients [27–31]. it is thus plausible that improving knowledge on the physiology of opioid use disorder and the mechanisms of MOUD may decrease negative…”
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“Given that craving can arise even after prolonged abstinence, some have argued that, once established, addiction is irreversible (Volkow et al., 2016).”
Social Support, Coping, Life Satisfaction, and Academic Success Among College Students
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“Scholars have suggested that deficiency in inhibitory control, represented by a deficiency in response control, plays an essential role in the initiation of addiction and relapse (Volkow et al., 2016; Zilverstand et al., 2018).”
Alcohol use disorder conceptualizations and diagnoses reflect their sociopolitical context
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Neurocognitive Impulsivity in Opiate Users at Different Lengths of Abstinence
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van de Wetering, R., Ewald, A. W. M., Welsh, S., Kornberger, L., Williamson, S. E., McElroy, B. D., Butelman, E. R., Prisinzano, T. E., & Kivell, B. M. (2023) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules28124848 · Cited by 11
“Although it is now well established that SUDs are disorders of the brain, maintained, in part, by persistent changes in brain function, efficacious treatments for many SUDs have remained elusive [1,2].”
BackgroundKim, H. C., Kaplan, C. M., Islam, S., Anderson, A. S., Piper, M. E., Bradford, D. E., Curtin, J. J., DeYoung, K. A., Smith, J. F., Fox, A. S., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288544 · Cited by 9
“Mechanistic work in animals suggests that anxious withdrawal reflects neuroplastic alterations in EAc neurotransmission that promote exaggerated stressor reactivity in nicotine-dependent rats and mice, but the translational relevance of these discoveries to the complexities of the human brain and human emotion remain…”
BackgroundShoulders, A., Andrews, C. M., Westlake, M. A., Abraham, A. J., & Grogan, C. M. (2023) · JAMA Health Forum · doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2023.2502 · Cited by 11
Mellinger, J. L., Winder, G. S., Fernandez, A. C., Asefah, H., & Zikmund‐Fisher, B. J. (2024) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2024.209292 · Cited by 11
Donaire, R., Conrad, S. E., Thompson, J. B., Papini, M. R., & Torres, C. (2018) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.02.013 · Cited by 11
Guaita, G. D. O., Vecchia, D. D., Andreatini, R., Robinson, D. L., Schwarting, R. K. W., & Cunha, C. D. (2018) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-018-4878-8 · Cited by 11
Baldassarri, S. R., Lee, I., Latham, S. R., & D’Onofrio, G. (2018) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1177/1073110518782925 · Cited by 11
Adherence to extended release naltrexone: Patient and treatment characteristics
Chang, G., Crawford, M. B., Pitts, M., Schein, A. Z., Goodwin, K., & Enggasser, J. L. (2018) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.12786 · Cited by 11
Harnessing Neurogenesis and Neuroplasticity with Stem Cell Treatment for Addictive Disorders
Tsai, S., Liew, H., Li, H., Lin, S., & Chen, S.-Y. (2019) · Cell Transplantation · doi:10.1177/0963689719859299 · Cited by 12
Perceived Sensitivity to Pain and Responsiveness to Non-noxious Sensation in Substance Use Disorder
Assayag, N., Bonneh, Y. S., Parush, S., Mell, H., Kaplan‐Neeman, R., & Bar‐Shalita, T. (2019) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnz292 · Cited by 10
The (in)Significance of the Addiction Debate
Goldberg, A. E. (2019) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-019-09424-5 · Cited by 14
Withdrawal Symptoms Among American Collegiate Internet Gamers
Giordano, A. L., Prosek, E. A., Bain, C., Malacara, A., Turner, J., Schunemann, K., & Schmit, M. K. (2020) · Journal of Mental Health Counseling · doi:10.17744/mehc.42.1.05 · Cited by 9
Toledo-Fernández, A., Brzezinski-Rittner, A., Roncero, C., Benjet, C. L., Cruz, J. S., & Marín-Navarrete, R. (2017) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2017.1397208 · Cited by 11
Substance Abuse and Addiction: Implications for Early Relationships and Interventions.
Suchman, N. E., & DeCoste, C. L. (2018) · PubMed · Cited by 11
A Change Management Case Study for Safe Opioid Prescribing and Opioid Use Disorder Treatment
Sokol, R. G., Schuman‐Olivier, Z., Batalden, M., Sullivan, L., & Shaughnessy, A. F. (2020) · The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine · doi:10.3122/jabfm.2020.01.190223 · Cited by 11
Rewiring the Addicted Brain: Circuits-Based Treatment for AddictionPreprint
Madeo, G., & Bonci, A. (2018) · Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology · doi:10.1101/sqb.2018.83.038158 · Cited by 11
Overeating, Overweight, and Substance Use: What Is the Connection?
Saules, K. K., Carr, M. M., & Herb, K. M. (2018) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-018-0208-9 · Cited by 10
Poon, J. Y. K., Hu, H., Lam, M., Lui, S. S. Y., & Chan, R. C. K. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-022-00976-x · Cited by 10
“Likewise, impaired inhibitory control and reinforcement have been proposed as cognitive factors which maintain addictive behaviour (Koob & Volkow, 2016; Volkow et al., 2016), but have not been included in this network analysis.”
Preoperative Predictors of Prolonged Opioid Use in the 6 Months After Total Knee Arthroplasty
Larach, D. B., Kertai, M. D., Billings, F. T., Anderson, S. B., Polkowski, G. G., Shinar, A. A., Milne, G. L., Mishra, P., & Bruehl, S. P. (2023) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000001143 · Cited by 10
Substance Use Disorders: Basic Overview for the Anesthesiologist
Ruiz, F. J., Warner, N. S., Acampora, G. A., Coleman, J. R., & Kohan, L. R. (2023) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/ane.0000000000006281 · Cited by 10
The United States opioid crisis: Big pharma alone is not to blame.”
Compton, P. A. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107777 · Cited by 11
Wallden, M., Dahlberg, G., Månflod, J., Knez, R., Winkvist, M., Zetterström, A., Andersson, K., Hämäläinen, M., & Nyberg, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2023.1282022 · Cited by 11
Ko, C.-H., Lu, Y.-C., Lee, C.-H., & Liao, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1382646 · Cited by 12
“Addiction has been de fi ned as a neurological disorder with remarkable advancements in neuroscience methodologies, and neuropsychological models offer enhanced explanatory frameworks for comprehending addictive behavior (34).”
BackgroundNusslock, R., Kogan, S. M., Yu, T., Armstrong, C. C., Chen, E., Miller, G. E., Brody, G. H., & Sweet, L. H. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.06.018 · Cited by 10
“People with low executive control can find it difficult to regulate their emotions (John-stone et al., 2007; Young et al., 2016) and they may consume substances to manage their dysphoria (Koob & Volkow, 2016; Volkow et al., 2016).”
Eekhoudt, C. R., Sandhu, M., Mniszak, C., Goodyear, T., Turuba, R., Marchand, K., Barbic, S. P., & Fast, D. (2024) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104598 · Cited by 10
Modern pharmacotherapy guidance for treating alcohol use disorders
Soyka, M., & Rösner, S. (2024) · Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1080/14656566.2024.2445734 · Cited by 11
“A diagnosis of mild substance use disorder is warranted if two to three criteria are met, meeting four to five symptoms indicates a moderate disorder, while six or more symptoms denote severe substance use disorder [10].”
Oesterle, T., Bormann, N. L., Al‐Soleiti, M., Kung, S., Singh, B., McGinnis, M. T., da Costa, S. C., Rummans, T. A., Chauhan, M., Cabrera, J. M. R., et al. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15070723 · Cited by 10
“Addiction is thought to occur in three stages: binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation (or craving) [5].”
Cardiorespiratory Fitness Predicts Higher Inhibitory Control in Patients With Substance Use Disorder
Tavares, V. D. D. O., da Costa, K. G., Cabral, D. A. R., Rêgo, M. L. D. M., Price, M. J., & Fontes, E. B. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2019-0026 · Cited by 10
Aloi, J. M., Blair, K. S., Meffert, H., White, S. F., Hwang, S., Tyler, P. M., Crum, K. I., Thornton, L. C., Mobley, A. M., Killanin, A. D., et al. (2020) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12885 · Cited by 10
“Although it would be possible to test participants without comorbidities, this would mean investigating a clinically atypical sample particularly since greater SUD symptoms compromise functions associated with a number of psychiatric conditions.(49) Impor-”
BackgroundWeinberg, D. (2020) · History of the Human Sciences · doi:10.1177/0952695120945962 · Cited by 10
“…‘hijacking’ the brain’s natural proclivities to reward healthy behaviour, addictive drugs deceive, usurp, and enslave the brain’s reward circuitry, causing a ‘loss of self control’ and rendering untold harms to victims themselves and to their societies (Volkow, Koob, and McLellan, 2016: 364).”
BackgroundNeurocognitive Disorders in Substance Use Disorders
Ekhtiari, H., Zare-Bidoky, M., & Verdejo‐García, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36391-8_81 · Cited by 10
Addiction is a Disability, and it Matters
Maier, J. T. (2021) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-021-09466-8 · Cited by 10
Larson, L. (2021) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn26.2.228 · Cited by 11
Marcovitz, D. E., White, K. D., Sullivan, W. J., Limper, H. M., Dear, M. L., Buie, R. B., Edwards, D. A., Chastain, C. A., Kast, K. A., Lindsell, C. J., et al. (2021) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05698-4 · Cited by 10
“circuitry such that transitions in care must be facilitated to improve retention and engagement in care [25].”
BackgroundGoings, T. C., Cano, M. N., Salas‐Wright, C. P., Campos, B. M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107364 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Volkow, N. D., Koob, G. F., & McLellan, A. T.
- Affiliations
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (US)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (US)
- Treatment Research Institute (US)
- Venue
- New England Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Massachusetts Medical Society
- Published
- 2016-01-28
- Volume
- 374
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 363-371
- ISSN
- 0028-4793 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-4406
- PMC
- PMC6135257
- OpenAlex
- W2283026346
- Cited by
- 2,008
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 264 · 2025: 198 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 193 · 2022: 179 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 245 · 2019: 160 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 178 · 2016: 54
- FWCI
- 19.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- New England Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99‐AA999999)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
- Keywords
- brain disease model of addiction, neurobiology of addiction, substance use disorders, conditioned response, stress reactivity, drug craving, executive function, relapse, behavioral addiction, addiction genetics, social environment, addiction prevention, addiction treatment, public health policy, Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act
- MeSH terms
- Brain Diseases, Humans, Models, Neurological, Substance Withdrawal Syndrome, Substance-Related Disorders
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