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Cross-cultural competence in international business: toward a definition and a model
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“Such metacognition, which can be cultivated by organizational diversity practices (Nishii et al., 2018), shapes responsiveness to cues that help predict the process that is likely to become dominant in the diverse team (Adair, Hideg, & Spence, 2013;Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006).”
From Leading diversity: Towards a theory of functional leadership in diverse teams. (2020) · cites this paper as Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006
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“Johnson et al. (2006) argue that many international businesses fail because of a lack of cross-cultural competence.”
BackgroundIntercultural Communication Competence: Well-being and Performance of Multicultural Teams
Balakrishnan, K., Harji, M. B., & Angusamy, A. (2021) · Journal of Intercultural Communication · doi:10.36923/jicc.v21i2.16 · Cited by 26
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“Next, cultural boundary-spanning requires individuals to accommodate different values, beliefs, and norms (Johnson et al., 2006), thereby transferring more tacit knowledge, which is difficult to formalize and is practice and context-specific (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001).”
Goodrich, K., & de Mooij, M. K. (2011) · Journal of International Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1080/08961530.2011.578061 · Cited by 25
“In 1990, the World Values Survey ( Inglehart, Basanez, and Moreno 1998 ) asked respondents how important leisure time was for them.”
BackgroundSupport for diversity practices in Norway: Depends on who you are and whom you have met
Abramović, G., & Traavik, L. E. M. (2017) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2017.04.002 · Cited by 14
Xie, Y., & Cooke, F. L. (2018) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21931 · Cited by 24
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Kampermann, A., Opdenakker, R., Heijden, B. V. D., & Bücker, J. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13147790 · Cited by 32
“Therefore, the need to develop intercultural competencies has become more and more important [87,93], and refers to the need to understand, reflect, and act on the culturally shaped expectations and norms of our counterparts in each new situation.”
BackgroundSex, Gender and Cultural Intelligence in the Canadian Forces
Davis, K. D. (2009) · Commonwealth and Comparative Politics · doi:10.1080/14662040903375091 · Cited by 23
“Focusing on intercultural communication, James Johnson, Tomasc Lenartowicz and Salvador Apud ( 2006 : 84) conclude that cultural competence is comprised of three factors: attitude, skills and knowledge.”
BackgroundCharismatic Leadership, Citizenship Behaviors, and Power Distance Orientation
Cavazotte, F., Hartman, N. S., & Bahiense, E. (2013) · Cross-Cultural Research · doi:10.1177/1069397113494687 · Cited by 25
Pereira, V. E., & Fontinha, R. (2015) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21717 · Cited by 23
Antecedents of Cross-Cultural Adaptation Stress in Short-Term International Assignments
Crowne, K. A., & Engle, R. L. (2016) · Organization Management Journal · doi:10.1080/15416518.2015.1129308 · Cited by 23
Consumer mobility and well-being among changing places and shifting ethnicities
Demangeot, C., Broeckerhoff, A., Kipnis, E., Pullig, C., & Visconti, L. M. (2014) · Marketing Theory · doi:10.1177/1470593114553327 · Cited by 23
“Other disciplines, for example, intercultural research, higher education and international business (e.g. Deardorff and Jones, 2012; Johnson et al., 2006), have already explored various concepts related to adaptiveness, from which our field could benefit.”
BackgroundThe relationship between strategic thinking and leadership effectiveness in Kenyan indigenous banks
Muriithi, S., Louw, L., & Radloff, S. E. (2018) · South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences · doi:10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1741 · Cited by 23
Designing Curriculum for Real-World International Business Needs
Wolf, B. M., & Wright, L. L. (2014) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2014.925740 · Cited by 22
“As Johnson, Lenartowicz, and Apud (2006) pointed out, one can have a culturally competent manager who can still fail if the other environmental and institutional factors are not taken into account.”
BackgroundOnline Teaching in International Business
Aggarwal, R., & Wu, Y. (2020) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2020.1738755 · Cited by 22
“Johnson, Lenartowicz, and Apud (2006) argue that cross-cultural competence in international business refers to not only the knowledge, skills, and personal attributes of a person, but also the behavioral adoption the person undertakes to effectively interact with people from different cultures by…”
BackgroundBunce, J. A. (2021) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-021-00916-5 · Cited by 22
The role of intelligences in teams: a systematic literature review
Davaei, M., & Gunkel, M. (2023) · Review of Managerial Science · doi:10.1007/s11846-023-00672-7 · Cited by 27
“Thus, in multicultural teams, in addition to EQ, individuals must also rely on cross-cultural abilities, like cultural intelligence (CQ), for effective interaction (Johnson et al. 2006; Thomas et al. 2008).”
Towards a value-based perspective of consumer multicultural orientation
Seo, Y., & Gao, H. (2014) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2014.06.001 · Cited by 22
Cross-Cultural Knowledge, Attitudes and Experiences of Hospitality Management Students
Taylor, M., & McArthur, L. H. (2009) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education · doi:10.1080/10963758.2009.10696955 · Cited by 22
Martin, J. A., Heppard, K. A., & Green, S. G. (2011) · Business Horizons · doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.03.002 · Cited by 22
How to Assess Global Management Competencies: An Investigation of Existing Instruments
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Knowledge acquisition of Chinese expatriates: managing Chinese MNEs in Kazakhstan
Kozhakhmet, S., & Nurgabdeshov, A. (2021) · Journal of International Management · doi:10.1016/j.intman.2021.100919 · Cited by 21
International Business Students’ Cross-Cultural Competence Development
Mikhaylov, N. S. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014564352 · Cited by 21
“In the last 25 years, the topic has drawn the attention of the management and academic community, and cultural knowledge creation and cross-cultural competence have been approached and researched from a variety of directions (cf. Holden, 2002; Johnson et al., 2006; Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009).”
BackgroundTransferring management practices to China: a Bourdieusian critique of ethnocentricity
Siebers, L. Q., Kamoche, K. N., & Li, F. (2014) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2014.925948 · Cited by 21
“Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view the world from the point of view of one’s own particular cultural or social group (Johnson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialPathak, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2018.1455920 · Cited by 21
Lakshman, C., Bacouël-Jentjens, S., & Kraak, J. M. (2021) · Journal of World Business · doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2021.101241 · Cited by 21
Kupka, B., Everett, A. M., Atkins, S. G., Mertesacker, M., Walters, L. M., Walters, T., Graf, A., Hill, L. B., Dodd, C. H., & Bolten, J. (2009) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.20312 · Cited by 21
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Messner, W. (2015) · International Journal of Managing Projects in Business · doi:10.1108/ijmpb-05-2014-0044 · Cited by 20
Governance capabilities and relationship performance in international franchising
Ghantous, N., Das, S. S., & Chameroy, F. (2017) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.08.022 · Cited by 20
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Rustambekov, E., & Mohan, R. (2017) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2017.1359768 · Cited by 21
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Stawicki, S. P., Garg, M., Peck, G., Arquilla, B., Miller, A., Soghoian, S., Anderson, H., Bloem, C. M., Firstenberg, M., Galwankar, S., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science · doi:10.4103/ijciis.ijciis_65_17 · Cited by 19
“Cross‐cultural skills are essential to IMP work and include the ability to communicate effectively with people from different socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds.[15,16] In LMICs, clinicians must be able to work independently in complex social and cultural settings with extremely limited resources and high…”
BackgroundSudirman, S. (2019) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v12n8p21 · Cited by 19
“In the last two decades, Altbach (2005), Friedman (2006), Johnson, Lenartowicz, and Apud (2006), and Mok (2006) find out that the significant development of technology and globalization has drastically changed some aspects of life, e.g., business, communication, and education.”
BackgroundMadhavaram, S., Badrinarayanan, V. A., & Granot, E. (2011) · Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing · doi:10.1108/08858621111162334 · Cited by 19
Student Perceptions of Internationalization, Multiculturalism, and Diversity in the Business School
Mitchell, M. C., & Vandegrift, D. (2014) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2013.863720 · Cited by 20
Watkins, D. V., Newcomer, J. M., Earmjardt, M., Marion, J., Opengart, R., & Glassman, A. (2016) · International Journal of Aviation Aeronautics and Aerospace · doi:10.15394/ijaaa.2016.1101 · Cited by 20
How do students develop intercultural competence during international mobility?
Bartel‐Radic, A., & Cucchi, A. (2025) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2024.102132 · Cited by 25
Rai, L., Deng, C., Lin, S., & Fan, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1219478 · Cited by 30
Houdek, P. (2023) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100876 · Cited by 19
Sources of Competitiveness of Offshore IT Service Providers in India: Towards a Conceptual Framework
Chadee, D. D., Raman, R., & Michailova, S. (2011) · Competition & Change · doi:10.1179/102452911x13046725211256 · Cited by 17
“cited as a major cause of firm failure in international business (Johnson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLouw, L., Muriithi, S., & Radloff, S. E. (2017) · SA Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v15i0.935 · Cited by 17
“Several studies highlight the role of cross-cultural competence in shaping the leader’s behaviour and the increasing demand to have leaders who are able to manage diversity in the workplace (Earley & Ang, 2003; Johnson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundCross-cultural event volunteering: Challenge and intelligence
Qi, H., Smith, K. A., & Yeoman, I. S. (2018) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2018.03.019 · Cited by 19
Peng, B. (2018) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i09.8724 · Cited by 17
“Johnson [3] assumed that the concept of intercultural competence covered a wide range of fields.”
BackgroundAli, S., Abbasi, I. A., Mustafa, E. E., Wahid, F., & Huang, J. (2022) · Empirical Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10664-021-10044-y · Cited by 17
Nafei, W. A. (2012) · International Journal of Business and Management · doi:10.5539/ijbm.v8n1p26 · Cited by 17
Johnson, R. G. (2011) · Journal of Public Affairs Education · doi:10.1080/15236803.2011.12001637 · Cited by 17
“Transgender is used as an umbrella term describing people who do not conform to traditional binary norms of gender identity (Currah, Juang, & Minter, 2006; Taylor, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodManaging a globally distributed workforce: Social and interpersonal issues.
Leung, K. Y., & Peterson, M. F. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12171-022 · Cited by 17
Expatriate managers decision-making practices within the UAE: a qualitative study
Almazrouei, H. S., Zacca, R., Bilney, C., & Antoine, G. E. (2016) · International journal of organizational analysis · doi:10.1108/ijoa-10-2015-0929 · Cited by 17
Rahayu, G. D. S., & Nugraha, F. F. (2018) · PrimaryEdu - Journal of Primary Education · doi:10.22460/pej.v1i1.671 · Cited by 17
Personality traits and expatriate adjustment in Malaysia
Richardson, C., Tan, G.-H., & Kiumarsi, S. (2018) · Journal of Asia Business Studies · doi:10.1108/jabs-06-2017-0091 · Cited by 17
From cultural adaptation to cross-cultural discursive competence
Zhu, Y. (2008) · Discourse & Communication · doi:10.1177/1750481307088483 · Cited by 17
“According to Johnson et al. (2006), cultural distance is negatively related to processes and outputs of international corporations, and distant differences across cultures may constitute a barrier to effective communication in international business.”
BackgroundDeveloping global leadership competence: redefining higher education for interconnected economies
Bilderback, S., & Thompson, C. B. (2025) · Higher Education Skills and Work-based Learning · doi:10.1108/heswbl-10-2024-0301 · Cited by 16
Setting the Theoretical Foundations of Importing Research: Past Evaluation and Future Perspectives
Aykol, B., Leonidou, L. C., & Zeriti, A. (2012) · Journal of International Marketing · doi:10.1509/jim.11.0129 · Cited by 17
“Estrangeirismo” and flexibility: intercultural learning in Brazilian MNCs
Bartel-Radic, A. (2013) · Management international · doi:10.7202/1020680ar · Cited by 13
“This definition of IC is very close to that of other terms proposed in related research, notably “cross-cultural competence” (Johnson et al., 2006), “cultural intelligence” (Earley & Ang, 2003) and “global mindset” (Levy et al.”
ResultExpatriate Selection: A Historical Overview and Criteria for Decision-Making
Ott, D. L., & Michailova, S. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1876-066x20160000032001 · Cited by 16
Cross-Cultural Competence: The Role of Emotion Regulation Ability and Optimism
Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/mil0000081 · Cited by 22
“Therefore, we developed the Appraisal of Cross-Cultural Competence (ACCC) specifically for this research using task statements provided in the Johnston et al. (2010) report on the Framework.”
MethodCultural intelligence and state suspicion: attachment styles as moderators
Tuấn, L. T. (2017) · Corporate Communications An International Journal · doi:10.1108/ccij-06-2015-0032 · Cited by 16
It was never ours: Formalised event hosting rights and leverage
Kelly, D. M., Fairley, S., & O’Brien, D. (2019) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2019.01.016 · Cited by 16
Thriving and retention of expatriates: Cultural intelligence and organizational embeddedness inputs
Ren, H., Yunlu, D. G., Shaffer, M. A., & Fodchuk, K. M. (2021) · International Journal of Cross Cultural Management · doi:10.1177/14705958211004655 · Cited by 18
“CQ represents an important cross-cultural competence (Johnson et al., 2006), and it comprises four dimensions: (1) metacognitive CQ refers to an individual’s ability to recognize and understand new cultural information and integrate that information as working knowledge; (2) cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s cult…”
BackgroundFerreira, M. P., Serra, F. A. R., & Reis, N. R. (2011) · European J of International Management · doi:10.1504/ejim.2011.042735 · Cited by 17
Walker, J. (2009) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930903405050 · Cited by 16
“Johnson et al. (2006) highlighted types of business failure caused by deficits in cross-cultural knowledge and skills, and developed a model of crosscultural competence based on personal attributes, personal skills, and cultural knowledge.”
BackgroundHsu, S. T., Iriyama, A., & Prescott, J. E. (2016) · Journal of International Management · doi:10.1016/j.intman.2015.11.001 · Cited by 15
Short-term foreign trips correlates of the four factors model of cultural intelligence
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Kimber, D., Guesalaga, R., & Dickmann, M. H. (2021) · Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing · doi:10.1108/jbim-02-2021-0121 · Cited by 17
Iskhakova, M., Bradly, A., & Ott, D. L. (2023) · Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism · doi:10.1080/15313220.2023.2223029 · Cited by 15
“…because it challenges existing assumptions that higher cultural distances between the home and host countries will result in more challenges and psychological strain, and negatively influence international experiences (Johnson et al., 2006, Ng & Earley, 2006, Ward & Kennedy, 1993, Zhang, 2013).”
BackgroundFeola, R., Crudele, C., & Celenta, R. (2024) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101055 · Cited by 28
Ge, L., Gilardi, F., Whyke, T. W., & Yang, K. C. C. (2024) · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · doi:10.29333/ejecs/2106 · Cited by 15
“Cross-cultural aligns more with our study’s focus, as it analyzes contrasting knowledge across cultures (J. P. Johnson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialBartel‐Radic, A., Moos, J. C., & Long, S. K. (2015) · Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education · doi:10.1111/dsji.12076 · Cited by 15
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Apitsa, S. M. (2019) · Management international · doi:10.7202/1060891ar · Cited by 15
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Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Frost, M., Rong, S., Jiang, R., & Cheng, T. C. E. (2021) · Cross Cultural & Strategic Management · doi:10.1108/ccsm-01-2020-0012 · Cited by 18
Ivarsson, I., & Alvstam, C. G. (2013) · Asian Business & Management · doi:10.1057/abm.2013.18 · Cited by 15
Creque, C. A., & Gooden, D. J. (2011) · International Journal of Management & Information Systems (IJMIS) · doi:10.19030/ijmis.v15i4.5812 · Cited by 15
“Thus, an individual with these attributes will need to use them effectively in order to work successfully with individuals from different cultural background (Johnson et al. 2006).”
BackgroundCultural distance and internationalization: the world's largest food and drink multinationals
Filippaios, F., & Rama, R. (2011) · Agribusiness · doi:10.1002/agr.20283 · Cited by 15
“Most empirical studies in the IB literature find that cultural distance increases the difficulties an MNE faces overseas (Johnson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluence of Students’ Interactions Abroad on Developing Intercultural Competence
Ramírez, E. (2019) · Journal of Teaching in International Business · doi:10.1080/08975930.2019.1627979 · Cited by 15
Wang, Q., & Teo, T. P. (2024) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2024.101953 · Cited by 14
Managing expatriates to achieve mutual benefits: An integrative model and analysis
Fan, D., Wu, S., Su, Y., & Li, Y. (2021) · Journal of International Management · doi:10.1016/j.intman.2021.100882 · Cited by 14
Internationalization competence of SMEs
Achtenhagen, L. (2011) · Cited by 14
Diao, A. (2012) · AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT · doi:10.5897/ajbm11.2424 · Cited by 14
Open-mindedness and adaptive business style
Alteren, G., & Tudoran, A. A. (2018) · International Marketing Review · doi:10.1108/imr-08-2017-0142 · Cited by 14
Kotzé, M., & Massyn, L. (2019) · SA Journal of Industrial Psychology · doi:10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1660 · Cited by 20
Social capital and global mindset
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Universal Life Competency-Ability-Efficiency-Skill-Expertness (Life-CAES) Framework and Equation
Mashrafi, M. A. (2026) · International Journal of Research · doi:10.26643/eduindex/jsmap/2026/6 · Cited by 13
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“To avoid confusion, it is useful to distinguish between two types of cross-cultural studies on competencies, that is, studies on competencies in different cultures, and studies on cultural competencies (Earley and Ang, 2003; Johnson et al, 2006; Thomas et al, 2008).”
BackgroundLi, M. (2009) · Advances in global leadership · doi:10.1108/s1535-1203(2009)0000005014 · Cited by 13
Teaching Tip: Adding Intercultural Communication to an IS Curriculum.
Mitchell, A., & Benyon, R. (2018) · The Journal of Information and Systems in Education · Cited by 13
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“Johnson et al. (2006)—an article that develops a model of cross cultural competences to be applied in international business and international human resource management—and Shimizu et al. (2004)—an analysis of cross border mergers and acquisitions as entry mode in foreign markets, dynamic learning…”
BackgroundHow ethnographic research can help conceptualize expatriate acculturation
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Metadata
- Authors
- Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S.
- Affiliations
- Rollins College (US)
- Florida Atlantic University (US)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Johnson, James P
- ORCID
- Johnson, James P
- Venue
- Journal of International Business Studies
- Published
- 2006-05-11
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 525-543
- ISSN
- 0047-2506 (ISSN-L)
- 1478-6990
- OpenAlex
- W2008568070
- Cited by
- 909
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 53 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 54 · 2014: 55 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 57
- FWCI
- 61.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of International Business Studies (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Georgetown University
- Florida Atlantic University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Communication › International Student and Expatriate Challenges
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Business and International Management › Global and Cross-Cultural Management
- Social Sciences › Communication › Language, Communication, and Linguistic Studies
- Keywords
- intercultural competence, international business, cultural intelligence, conceptual definitions, competence model
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