Fractal branching organizations of Ediacaran rangeomorph fronds reveal a lost Proterozoic body plan
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The branching morphology of Ediacaran rangeomorph fronds has no exact counterpart in other complex macroorganisms. As such, these fossils pose major questions as to growth patterns, functional morphology, modes of feeding, and adaptive optimality. Here, using parametric Lindenmayer systems, a formal model of rangeomorph morphologies reveals a fractal body plan characterized by self-similar, axial, apical, alternate branching. Consequent morphological reconstruction for 11 taxa demonstrates an adaptive radiation based on 3D space-filling strategies. The fractal body plan of rangeomorphs is shown to maximize surface area, consistent with diffusive nutrient uptake from the water column (osmotrophy). The enigmas of rangeomorph morphology, evolution, and extinction are resolved by the realization that they were adaptively optimized for unique ecological and geochemical conditions in the late Proterozoic. Changes in ocean conditions associated with the Cambrian explosion sealed their fate.
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The fractal organisation of early fronds such as Rangea and their large surface area may imply that these organisms fed, at least partly, via absorption of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from seawater.
“An additional point in favour of their interpretation as stem-group metazoans is the fractal organisation of the early fronds such as Rangea ; a large surface area (especially given the lack of any other feeding structures) may imply that these organisms fed, at least partly, via absorption of DOC from the sea water”
From The origin of the animals and a 'Savannah' hypothesis for early bilaterian evolution (2017) · cites this paper as Hoyal Cuthill & Conway Morris, 2014
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Skeletal Nets of the Ediacaran Fronds
Luzhnaya, E. A., & Ivantsov, A. Y. (2019) · Paleontological Journal · doi:10.1134/s0031030119070050 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Martin Brasier's contribution to the palaeobiology of the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition
Liu, A., Menon, L. R., Shields, G., Callow, R. H. T., & McIlroy, D. (2016) · Geological Society London Special Publications · doi:10.1144/sp448.9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Constraining the lifespans of early animals of the Ediacaran
Mitchell, E. G., & Dhungana, A. (2025) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2025.0348 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An Unusual Body Plan in Bilateria: a Fractal Branching Body
Isaeva, V. V. (2023) · Paleontological Journal · doi:10.1134/s0031030123110060 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Morphogenesis of Fractofusus andersoni and the nature of early animal development
Dunn, F. S., Donoghue, P. C. J., & Liu, A. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58605-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Modeling morphological diversity in the oldest large multicellular organisms
Laflamme, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1412523111 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Spatial analysis of Beltanelliformis (Nemiana) in Baltica
Mitchell, E. G., Francovschi, I., Agić, H., & Bekker, A. (2026) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2026.108032 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Biological Energy Transformation
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How the Periodic Table of Available Elements Shaped Natural History
McFarland, B. J. (2017) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2017-1263.ch003
Stríkis, P. C. (2018) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.44.2018.tde-26042018-095244
Rare 567-million-year-old fossils refine our understanding of early animal evolution
Kirkland, C. L., & Clarke, A. J. I. (2026) · doi:10.64628/aa.uukauttkd
- Authors
- Hoyal Cuthill, J. F., & Conway Morris, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, United Kingdom
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2014-08-11
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 36
- Pages
- 13122-13126
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC4246981
- OpenAlex
- W1634335261
- Cited by
- 73
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 3
- FWCI
- 6.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Department of Earth Sciences EPrints Repository (acceptedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Evolutionary Biology
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
- Keywords
- fractal branching, body plan, L-systems, morphological reconstruction, adaptive radiation, osmotrophy, functional morphology, Cambrian explosion
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Structures, Fossils, Time Factors, Fractals, Imaging, Three-Dimensional
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