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Cited by 211Archaeology and ancient environmental studiesArchaeological and Geological StudiesAncient and Medieval Archaeology Studies

Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China

Open access
Wang, Jiajing, Liu, Li, Ball, Terry, Yu, Linjie, Li, Yuanqing, Xing, Fulai·2016·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1601465113PMC PMC4988576
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Abstract

The pottery vessels from the Mijiaya site reveal, to our knowledge, the first direct evidence of in situ beer making in China, based on the analyses of starch, phytolith, and chemical residues. Our data reveal a surprising beer recipe in which broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ), barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), Job’s tears ( Coix lacryma-jobi ), and tubers were fermented together. The results indicate that people in China established advanced beer-brewing technology by using specialized tools and creating favorable fermentation conditions around 5,000 y ago. Our findings imply that early beer making may have motivated the initial translocation of barley from the Western Eurasia into the Central Plain of China before the crop became a part of agricultural subsistence in the region 3,000 y later.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Residue analyses of Mijiaya pottery provide the earliest direct evidence of in situ beer making in China, with a mixed recipe of broomcorn millet, barley, Job’s tears, and tubers around 5,000 y ago. The barley evidence predates macrobotanical remains in China by 1,000 y and suggests beer making may have motivated barley’s initial translocation before it became a subsistence crop.

Key findings

  • Starch, phytolith, and chemical residues from Mijiaya vessels indicate a fermented beverage made from broomcorn millet (*Panicum miliaceum*), barley (*Hordeum vulgare*), Job’s tears (*Coix lacryma-jobi*), and tubers including snake gourd root, yam, and lily.
  • A total of 541 starch grains were recovered; 488 (90.2%) were identifiable, and 166 (30.7%) showed damage patterns matching malting and mashing. Phytoliths included η-shaped broomcorn millet elements, Job’s tears crosses, and articulated dendritic Triticeae phytoliths most probably from barley.
  • Ion chromatography detected oxalate in Funnel 1 at 0.08% (80 mg/100 g) and Pot 5 at 0.05% (50 mg/100 g), but not in Pot 3; control samples showed little or no comparable residues.
  • Barley at Mijiaya is reported as the earliest occurrence of this crop in China, predating macrobotanical remains by 1,000 y; the authors suggest barley was initially introduced to the Central Plain as an alcohol ingredient rather than for subsistence.

Methods

  • Residue analyses—starch, phytolith, and ion chromatography—were conducted on two complete funnels and pottery sherds from five *jiandiping* amphorae and two wide-mouth pots from Mijiaya pits H82 and H78, dated to 3400–2900 BC (Banpo IV/late Yangshao), with four control samples.
  • Starch and phytolith identification used morphological comparison with a reference collection of over 1,000 Asian and European economically important plant specimens and morphometric methods: a discriminant model separating Job’s tears from millets with 82.4% success, and articulated dendritic phytolith wave-lobe measurements with at least 30 measurable lobes per residue sample compared against 20 Triticeae and other dendritic-producing species.
  • Oxalate was measured by ion chromatography on residues from Funnel 1, Pot 3, and Pot 5, with control sample 4 analyzed separately.

Limitations

  • The paper states that future research with more comprehensive phytolith data from other Neolithic contexts is needed to test the hypothesis, and notes this is the first study applying morphometric analysis to dendritic phytoliths from China.
  • Oxalate was not detected in Pot 3, and only three residue samples were tested by ion chromatography for oxalate; the authors also acknowledge that oxalates occur naturally in some plants, though they argue the vessel types are not suitable for storing fresh plant material.
  • Evident from the text: identifications rely partly on morphometric models and reference collections with stated success rates, such as 82.4% for separating Job’s tears from millets, and the “beer-making toolkit” interpretation rests on artifact assemblages from two pits rather than direct ancient DNA or macrobotanical barley remains.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1601465113

Cites

29 of 29 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The Mijiaya starch assemblage mainly consists of millet, Triticeae, and Job's tears, with a smaller contribution from tubers including snake gourd root, yam, and lily.

    “The starch assemblage mainly consists of millet, Triticeae, and Job's tears, with a smaller contribution from tubers that include snake gourd root (Trichosanthes kirilowii), yam (Dioscorea sp.), and lily (Lilium sp.) (Fig. 3 A-F).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    All mean measurements of the Mijiaya archaeological samples fall within the ranges observed in H. vulgare.

    “Although some of the mean measurements of the archaeological samples fall within the ranges of other taxa, all of the means fall within those observed in H. vulgare (Tables S5 and S6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Seven Mijiaya vessels revealed η-shaped long cells consistent with phytoliths formed in epidermal husk tissues of broomcorn millet.

    “Seven vessels revealed η-shaped long cells that are consistent with phytoliths formed in epidermal husk tissues of broomcorn millet (Fig. 3J) (15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data

    Articulated dendritic phytoliths consistent in pattern and shape with those produced in the husks of Triticeae species were observed in the Mijiaya samples.

    “In particular, articulated dendritic phytoliths consistent in pattern and shape with those produced in the husks of Triticeae species were observed (Fig. 3K).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Phytoliths identified to the Panicoideae grass subfamily predominate the Mijiaya assemblage.

    “Phytoliths identified to the Panicoideae grass subfamily predominate the assemblage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 19
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A total of 541 starch grains were recovered from the Mijiaya funnels and pottery sherds; 488 (90.2%) were identifiable to various taxonomic levels.

    “A total of 541 starch grains were recovered from the funnels and pottery sherds (Table 1).Of these grains, 488 starch grains (90.2% of the total) were identifiable to various taxonomic levels compared with our reference data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China

    Three types of vessels were recovered in both Mijiaya pits: wide-mouth pots, funnels, and jiandiping amphorae, all with yellowish residues on their interior surface.

    “Three types of vessels were recovered in both pits: wide-mouth pots, funnels, and jiandiping amphorae (Fig. 2 B-D), all of which have yellowish residues on their interior surface (Fig. S2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The damaged Mijiaya starch grains show pits and channels on their surface and swollen, folded, and distorted forms.

    “First, some grains show pits and channels on their surface, ranging from being slightly pitted to completely hollow (Fig. 4A).Second, a large number of starch grains are swollen, folded, and distorted (Fig. 4B); some still retain their individual boundaries, but many merge into one another.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    A high percentage of Mijiaya starch grains (n = 166, 30.7%) exhibit signs of damage.

    “A high percentage of starch grains (n = 166, 30.7%) exhibit signs of damage, and among them two types of damage closely resemble that produced by beer brewing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    IC analysis of exterior scrapings from Mijiaya Pot 5 detected no oxalate, in contrast to a high level of oxalate found in the interior surface of the same vessel.

    “IC analysis of the exterior scrapings from Pot 5 (control sample 4) detected no oxalate, a result in clear contrast to a high level of oxalate found in the interior surface of the same vessel.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High levels of oxalate are present in Mijiaya Funnel 1 and Pot 5, but oxalate was not detected from Pot 3.

    “The results confirmed that high levels of oxalate are present in Funnel 1 and Pot 5 (Fig. 5).Oxalate was not detected from Pot 3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The oxalate concentration is 0.08% (80 mg/100 g) for Mijiaya Funnel 1 and 0.05% (50 mg/100 g) for Pot 5.

    “The oxalate concentration is 0.08% (80 mg/100 g) for Funnel 1 and 0.05% (50 mg/100 g) for Pot 5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Compared with ancient samples, the Mijiaya control samples contained a much smaller number of phytoliths and starch grains, with no signs of damage.

    “Compared with ancient samples, the control samples contained a much smaller number of phytoliths and starch grains (Tables 1 and 2) with no signs of damage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The phytolith profile corroborates the starch grain assemblage, indicating the presence of broomcorn millet, Job's tears, and barley.

    “The profile of phytoliths corroborates the starch grain assemblage, indicating the presence of broomcorn millet, Job's tears, and barley.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Each Mijiaya residue sample yielded at least 30 measurable wave lobes, allowing statistical confidence in the measurements of six morphometries.

    “Each residue sample yielded at least 30 measurable wave lobes in total, which allowed us to have statistical confidence in the measurements of form factor, roundness, convexity, solidity, compactness, and aspect ratio (Table S2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Calcium oxalate is a principal component of beerstone, settles out at beer fermentation and storage containers, and has been used as a compound marker for identifying barley beer fermentation in ancient vessels.

    “Calcium oxalate is a principle component of”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (24)(25)(26)(27)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Recent research has achieved good success at identifying wheat and barley phytoliths and distinguishing them from relevant wild grasses.

    “Recent research has achieved good success at identifying wheat and barley phytoliths and distinguishing them from the relevant wild grasses (12,13).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China

    Both Mijiaya pits belong to Banpo IV (or late Yangshao period), and the chronology securely places them between 3400 and 2900 BC.

    “Both pits belong to Banpo IV (or late Yangshao period) stratum, and an established chronology based on ceramic typology and 14 C dates in the region securely places the time period between 3400 and 2900 BC (9,10).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [9]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [10]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China

    China has an early tradition of fermentation, and evidence of rice-based fermented beverage has been found from the 9,000-y-old Jiahu site.

    “The hypothesis is possible, considering that China has an early tradition of fermentation and evidence of rice-based fermented beverage has been found from the 9,000-y-old Jiahu site (7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Although oxalates occur naturally in plants like spinach, rhubarb, and some Dioscorea and Lilium species, the Mijiaya vessel types are not suitable for storing any fresh plant.

    “Although oxalates occur naturally in plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), and some Dioscorea and Lilium species, the vessel types in this study are not suitable for storing any fresh plant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Mijiaya vessel types are not suitable for storing any fresh plant.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Yangshao people probably developed their beer recipe through repeated experiments.

    “The Yangshao people probably developed their recipe through repeated experiments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    All three lines of evidence are consistent with the archaeological data, indicating that the Yangshao people brewed a mixed beer with specialized tools and knowledge of temperature control.

    “All three lines of evidence are consistent with the archaeological data, indicating that the Yangshao people brewed a mixed beer with specialized tools and knowledge of temperature control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Mijiaya farmers probably obtained small quantities of barley grains through exchange or cultivated the plant along with other cereals.

    “The Mijiaya farmers probably obtained small quantities of barley grains through exchange or cultivated the plant along with other cereals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The timing and nature of barley's initial adoption in China is still not well understood.

    “The timing and nature of the crop's initial adoption in China is still not well understood (29)(30)(31).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (29)(30)(31)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The high concentrations of starch, phytolith, and chemical residues related to the beer-making process are exclusively present on the interior surfaces of the Mijiaya vessels, which potentially have had direct association with beer brewing.

    “These observations suggest that the high concentrations of starch, phytolith, and chemical residues related to the beer-making process are exclusively present on the interior surfaces of the Mijiaya vessels, which potentially have had direct association with beer brewing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared with millets, barley has much higher α- and β-amylase activities, which promotes the saccharification process.

    “Compared with millets, barley has much higher αand β-amylase activities, which promotes the saccharification process (28).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Beer is one of the most widely used and versatile drugs in the world and has been used for negotiating different kinds of social relationships.

    “Like other alcoholic beverages, beer is one of the most widely used and versatile drugs in the world (35), and it has been used for negotiating different kinds of social relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The late Yangshao period in the Wei River region was characterized by hierarchically organized settlement patterns, interpolity competitions, construction of large public architectures at regional centers, and ritual feasting likely organized by elite individuals and involving alcohol consumption.

    “The late Yangshao period in the Wei River region was characterized by hierarchically organized settlement patterns, interpolity competitions, construction of large public architectures at regional centers, and ritual feasting likely organized by elite individuals and involving alcohol consumption (34) (SI Text).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

23 of 23

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Direct evidence for alcohol production from Yangshao sites is lacking.

    “However, direct evidence for alcohol production from Yangshao sites is lacking.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Mijiaya vessel types are not suitable for storing any fresh plant.

    “Although oxalates occur naturally in plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), and some Dioscorea and Lilium species, the vessel types in this study are not suitable for storing any fresh plant.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Barley was first domesticated in Western Eurasia and later introduced into China, presumably through the Central Asian steppe.

    “Barley was first domesticated in Western Eurasia and later introduced into China, presumably through the Central Asian steppe.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Triticeae percentage is inconsistent with the table totals

    Minor

    The table reports 152 Triticeae grains out of 541 total grains. That is 28.1%, not 28.61%.

    Reported 28.61 · recomputed 28.096118

  • Pot 3 starch counts do not sum to the reported total

    Minor

    The counts in the Pot 3 row sum to 37, not 38.

    Reported 38 · recomputed 37

  • Pot 5 starch counts do not sum to the reported total

    Minor

    The counts in the Pot 5 row sum to 64, not 66.

    Reported 66 · recomputed 64

  • Pot 7 starch counts do not sum to the reported total

    Minor

    The counts in the Pot 7 row sum to 22, not 24.

    Reported 24 · recomputed 22

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. S Wen, T Yuan Yinxu Buci Yanjiu: Kexue Jishu Pian (A Study of Oracle Bones from Yinxu: Science and Technology) (Sichuansheng Shehui Kexueyuan, 1st Ed, Chengdu, China, 1983).
  2. D Zhang, Yinshang jiuwenhua chulun (A preliminary study of Shang alcohol culture). Zhongyuan Wenwu 3, 19–24 (1994).
  3. M Chen Yinxu Buci Zongshu (A Comprehensive Study of the Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu) (Kexue, Beijing, 1956).
  4. HT Huang Science and Civilisation in China. Vol 6: Biology and Biological Technology. Part V: Fermentations and Food Science (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK, 2000).
  5. Y Li, Dui woguo niangjiu qiyuan de tantao (The origin of alcoholic beverages in China). Kaogu 1, 41–44 (1962).
  6. Q Bao, J Zhou Zhongguo Chuantong Gongyi Quanji: Niangzao (Chinese Traditional Technology: Brewing) (Daxiang, 1st Ed, Zhengzhou, China, 2007).
  7. ; Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology Xi’an Mijiaya–Xinshiqi Shidai Yizhi 2004-2006 Kaogu Fajue Baogao (2004–2006 Excavation Report of the Neolithic Site Mijiaya in Xi’an) (Kexue, Beijing, 2012).
  8. ; Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Zhongguo Kaoguxue Zhong Tanshisi Niandai Shujuji (Radiocarbon Dates in Chinese Archaeology 1965–1991) (Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing, 1991).
  9. Y Yang Shaanxi Yangguanzhai Yizhi Yangshao Wenhua Zhongwanqi Qihou Huanjing Jilu Ji Yizhi Gurenlei Dui Quyu Huanjin Yicun (The Climatic Record and Human-environmental Relations from Middle to Late Yangshao Period: A Case Study at Yangguanzhai Shaanxi). Master’s thesis (Xibei University Xi’an China). (2013).
  10. BL Dronzek, P Hwang, W Bushuk, Scanning electron microscopy of starch from sprouted wheat. Cereal Chem 49, 232–239 (1972).
  11. X Liang, Shilun Shaanxi Miaodegou II culture (A Discussion on Shaanxi Miaodigou II Culture). Kaogu Xuebao 04, 397–412 (1987).
  12. X Liang, Shilun keshengzhuang Erqi wenhua (A discussion on the Keshengzhuang Culture). Kaogu Xuebao 04, 397–424 (1994).
  13. ; GPICRA (Gansu Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology) Gansu Qin’an Dadiwan Xinshiqi Shidai Yizhi Fajue Baogao (Qin’an Dadiwan Excavation Report) (Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing, 2006).

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Authors
Wang, J., Liu, L., Ball, T., Yu, L., Li, Y., & Xing, F.
Affiliations
  • Stanford University (US)
  • Stanford Archaeology Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305;
  • Brigham Young University (US)
  • Zhejiang Research Institute of Chemical Industry (CN)
  • Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, 710054 Xi’an, China
Corresponding author
Wang, Jiajing
ORCID
Ball, Terry
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2016-05-23
Volume
113
Issue
23
Pages
6444-6448
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1601465113
PMC
PMC4988576
OpenAlex
W2398626377
Semantic Scholar
386190a5203471f5d068ef58f979ad39e18d994f
Cited by
206
References
28
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 9
FWCI
11.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Archaeological and Geological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
Keywords
starch grain analysis, phytoliths, chemical residues, Panicum miliaceum, barley, Coix lacryma-jobi, tubers, fermentation
MeSH terms
Beer, Edible Grain, China, Magnoliopsida, Plant Tubers, History, Ancient

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