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Exposure to rising inequality shapes Americans' opportunity beliefs and policy support
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Significance: Although rising economic inequality in the United States has alarmed many, research across the social sciences repeatedly concludes that Americans are largely unconcerned about it. We argue that this conclusion may be premature. Here, we present the results of three experiments that test a different perspective—the opportunity model of beliefs about inequality. Tempering the conclusions of past work, the findings suggest that perceptions of rising economic inequality spark skepticism about the existence of economic opportunity in society that, in turn, may motivate support for equity-enhancing policies. Hence, this work calls for new theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of rising economic inequality, especially those that bridge disciplinary boundaries, as well as the largely separate experimental and correlational literatures.
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“In another experiment, participants were more likely to express that it is the government's responsibility to reduce inequality when they had been informed about the income distribution and the rising levels of inequality in the US (McCall et al., 2017).”
From Factual belief polarization between Democrats and Republicans: source or epiphenomenon of ideological and affective polarization? (2024) · cites this paper as McCall et al., 2017
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“exposing American participants to information about the rising economic inequality, compared to control information, led to stronger perceptions that economic success is due to structural factors rather than individual effort.”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as McCall, Burk, Laperrière, and Richeson (2017)
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“In the largest of the three studies, involving a representative sample of American adults, it was also found that information about rising inequality led to greater endorsement of policies that could be implemented by government and by business to reduce inequality.”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as McCall, Burk, Laperrière, and Richeson (2017)
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“In addition, I estimated models with dummy variables for financial and housing debt; with income as a categorical variable; including a measure of left-right political orientation; and including sociotropic measures of respondents’ beliefs about the role of meritocracy and structural inequality for getting ahead (McCa…”
MethodZhao, S., Huang, C., Chi, P., & Du, H. (2024) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10263-z · Cited by 6
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BackgroundInequality, social mobility and redistributive preferences
Günther, I., & Martorano, B. (2024) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2024.106828 · Cited by 10
Causal Beliefs for Socioeconomic Status Attainment Scale: Development and Validation
Im, H., & Shane, J. (2021) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2021.1948811 · Cited by 9
“This finding may be indicative of the general public’s growing sympathy or understanding of others’ misfortune as possibly stemming from systemic inequality (McCall et al., 2017).”
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Adolescents thinking on economic inequality: Expanding the discussion beyond the Global North
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Public Opinion and Reactions to Increasing Income Inequality
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When is it Fair to Tax the Rich? The Importance of Pro-Social Behavior
Trump, K. (2024) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140241302716 · Cited by 5
“Recent increases in economic inequality may have reduced public perceptions of the possibility of upward mobility (Manza & Brooks, 2021; McCall et al., 2017; Wolak & Peterson, 2020), increasing support for redistribution (Garc´ ı a-S´anchez et al., 2019; but see Mijs, 2021).”
Group-Based Hierarchies of Power and Status
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Rekker, R. (2024) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2024.1254826 · Cited by 6
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“Similar to existing experimental studies (Day and Fiske 2017; Heiserman et al. 2020; McCall et al. 2017; Shariff et al. 2016), each treatment group received an information treatment in which we provided information framed as a newspaper article about how income inequality and mobility between…”
Why Inequalities Persist: Parties’ (Non)Responses to Economic Inequality, 1970–2020
Horn, A., Haselmayer, M., & Klüser, K. J. (2025) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055425100907 · Cited by 4
“Provided with factual information about rising inequality, individuals are more supportive of redistributive policies in experiments (Kuziemko et al. 2015; McCall et al. 2017).”
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Exposure to GLP-1 Receptor Agonist and Bariatric Surgery Use on Obesity Policy Support
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(When) Do Parties Affect Economic Inequality? A Systematic Analysis of 30 Years of Research
Haselmayer, M., & Horn, A. (2024) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592724001786 · Cited by 4
“Alternatively, it could be that neither parties nor voters are su ffi ciently cognizant of high inequality (McCall 2013; McCall et al. 2017).”
Narratives of global convergence and the power of choosing a measure
Greenstein, J. P. (2019) · Oxford Development Studies · doi:10.1080/13600818.2019.1672636 · Cited by 4
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“control information) increased their beliefs that economic inequalities are due to structural rather than individual factors and increased support for redistribution [13,14].”
BackgroundLes inégalités comptent-elles ?
OCDE (2022) · doi:10.1787/0fa43215-fr · Cited by 5
Greater wealth, greater uncertainty: Changes in racial inequality in the Survey of Consumer Finances
Aladangady, A., Chang, A. C., & Krimmel, J. (2024) · The Journal of Economic Inequality · doi:10.1007/s10888-024-09639-4 · Cited by 4
“More closely related to questions from the SCF is a result from McCall et al. (2017), who note the causal channel of exposure to information on economic inequality decreases economic optimism in a randomized control trial.”
Personal Relative Position, Attribution and Social TrustPreprint
Albertazzi, A., Lown, P. L., & Mengel, F. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3789067 · Cited by 4
Castillo, J. C., Laffert, A., Carrasco, K., & Iturra-Sanhueza, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2025.1634219 · Cited by 3
“Perceptions of inequality have been associated with a range of distributive attitudes (Castillo et al., 2022; García-Sánchez et al., 2019; McCall et al., 2017; Trump, 2018).”
Álamo-Hernández, A., Sainz, M., Betancor, V., & Pérez, A. R. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15101317 · Cited by 3
“…of social disorder and perceived injustice by highlighting the limited opportunities for upward social mobility, which may facilitate moral justification through situational factors that cause transgressions to appear more justifiable (Davidai, 2018; McCall et al., 2017; Tay et al., 2014).”
The relevance of meritocratic beliefs for redistributive preferences increases with income
Pañeda-Fernández, I., Kamphorst, J., van de Rijt, A., & Battu, B. (2025) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103294 · Cited by 3
Assessing the Effects of District-Level Segregation on Meritocratic Beliefs in Germany
Oetke, N., Norkus, M., & Goebel, J. (2023) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci12070376 · Cited by 4
Fernández, J. J., Castillo, A. M. J., & Wen, F. (2024) · International Sociology · doi:10.1177/02685809241262715 · Cited by 3
“Second, Becker (2020), Hoy and Mager (2021a), Kuziemko et al. (2015), McCall et al. (2017), and Trump (2018) treat respondents with information on several economic actors and/or indicators of income inequality.”
InfluentialIm, H., & Shane, J. (2024) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2899 · Cited by 3
Petkanopoulou, K., Griva, A., García‐Sánchez, E., Vlastou‐Dimopoulou, F., Daoultzis, K. C., Willis, G. B., & Rodríguez‐Bailón, R. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12877 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, exposure to rising economic inequality has been shown to increase support for equity policies by raising awareness of the unfair societal structure and inequality of opportunities (García-Castro et al., 2020; Kim & Lee, 2018; McCall et al., 2017).”
Deng, Y., & Wang, F. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70015 · Cited by 4
Exploring the effect of social inequality on system-justifying beliefs of the disadvantaged
Zhang, Y., Ding, Y., Shenlong, Y. A. N. G., Xiaona, X. I. E., & Yongyu, G. U. O. (2022) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2022.01637 · Cited by 4
“00 01 0v 1 2.2 实证依据 自利取向的观点为人类社会反对不平等现状的客观现象提供了理论解释。实证研究中，研究者 们主要基于以下三种思路探讨不平等对低地位者系统合理信念的影响。第一，在不平等背景下，通 过考察社会经济地位与系统合理信念的关系，证实低地位者比高地位者系统合理信念更低（e.g., Lee et al., 2011; 杨沈龙等, 2016）；第二，考察不平等与社会经济地位的交互效应，侧重于不平等的调节 效应，即高、低不平等条件下社会经济地位与系统合理信念的关系，证实高不平等加剧系统合理信 念的地位差异（e.g., Li & Hu,…”
InfluentialPersonal harm from the Covid-19 pandemic predicts advocacy for equality
Birnbaum, H. J., Dittmann, A. G., Stephens, N. K., Reinhart, E. C., Carey, R. M., & Markus, H. R. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104400 · Cited by 4
“…schools, or reading objective information about inequality) can increase people ’ s endorsement of external attributions for inequality (Conn, Lovison, & Mo, 2021; McCall, Burk, Laperri ` ere, & Richeson, 2017; Piff et al., 2020; Shedd, 2015; Wiwad, Mercier, Piff, Shariff, & Aknin, 2020).”
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When and How Information About Economic Inequality Affects Attitudes Towards Redistribution
Sánchez‐Rodríguez, Á., García‐Sánchez, E., Montoya‐Lozano, M., Velandia-Morales, A., & Lobato, R. M. (2024) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-024-00435-z · Cited by 2
“This line of research suggests that providing information on economic inequality can increase people’s support for redistribution (Becker, 2020; Cruces et al., 2013; Fernández-Albertos & Kuo, 2018; García-Sánchez et al., 2020; Hoy et al., 2024; Karadja et al., 2017; McCall et al., 2017).”
InfluentialThe Misestimation of Urban‒Rural Income Inequality in China
Cai, Y., Ding, Y., & Guo, Y. (2024) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-024-00444-y · Cited by 3
“Moreover, system-justifying ideologies are associated with weakened support for redistributive policies (Hadarics et al., 2021 ; McCall et al., 2017 ; Wakslak et al., 2007).”
Inequality through digitalization: investigation of mediating and moderating mechanisms
Zang, L., Zhu, Y., & Cheng, D. (2024) · Information Technology for Development · doi:10.1080/02681102.2024.2423390 · Cited by 3
“First, the internet facilitates the implementation of inclusive policies (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019; Bauer, 2018); online debates and public disclosure can shape redistribution and pro-poor policies (Franko, 2016; McCall et al., 2017).”
The Politics of Income Inequality: Redistribution, Turnout and Responsiveness
Polacko, M. (2022) · Statistics Politics and Policy · doi:10.1515/spp-2021-0018 · Cited by 4
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“public opinion toward redistributive policy (e.g., Benabou 2000; Kelly and Enns 2010; McCall 2013; McCall et al. 2017).”
BackgroundResultThe Motivational Cost of Inequality: Pay Gaps Reduce the Willingness to Pursue Rewards
Gęsiarz, F., Jan-emmanuel De Neve, A., & Sharot, T. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237914 · Cited by 5
“Economic inequality arising due to random circumstances is often viewed as unfair [7], and previous studies have shown that people support redistribution of wealth in such situations [8].”
ResultThe subjective inequality scale : a new way to measure economic inequality
Schmalor, A. (2018) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0371137 · Cited by 3
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The Development of Socioeconomic Cognition in Childhood
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Beyond Identity: A Framework for the Study of Social Inequalities and Social Change
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“…regarding social change will help us better understand the role (perceived) inequalities or (dis)advantages per se (see, e.g., B. Becker, 2020; McCall et al., 2017; Mijs, 2021; Roth & Wohlfart, 2018; see also Dawtry et al., 2015, 2019; Galesic et al., 2018) play relative to other factors,…”
Lay Beliefs about Changes in Financial Well-being Predict Political and Policy Message PreferencesPreprint
Krijnen, J. M. T., Ülkümen, G., Bogard, J. E., & Fox, C. R. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3695322 · Cited by 2
Preprint - The Subjective Inequality ScalePreprint
Schmalor, A., & Heine, S. J. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gpx6d · Cited by 2
Threat of Racial and Economic Inequality Increases Preference for Algorithm Decision-MakingPreprint
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Castillo, J. C., Iturra-Sanhueza, J., Meneses, F. J., Venegas, M., & Miranda, D. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/f7bzq · Cited by 2
Fundamental and Identity-Based Social InequalitiesPreprint
Sebben, S., & Ullrich, J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/kr4cp · Cited by 2
Kraus, M. W., Torrez, B., & Hollie, L. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k3dmf · Cited by 3
Happiness Scholarship and Redistributive Preferences
Rauf, T., & Jeremy Freese, A. (2023) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/01902725231189258 · Cited by 1
“It has been widely used as a measure of redistributive preferences (Brady and Bostic 2015; Brooks and Manza 2007; McCall et al. 2017).”
Álamo-Hernández, A., & Sainz, M. (2024) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2024.2396345 · Cited by 1
“…to the awareness of economic inequality increasing intolerance toward it (Franko et al., 2013; García-Castro et al., 2021; Kuziemko et al., 2015), but also because perceiving higher economic inequality makes the external factors that influence poverty and wealth more salient (McCall et al., 2017).”
InfluentialOverconfident and underconcerned: Behavioral biases in redistribution attitudes
Wang, Y., Xu, W., Xiao, X., & Zhou, Y. (2025) · China Economic Quarterly International · doi:10.1016/j.ceqi.2025.05.001 · Cited by 1
Liu, W., Sommet, N., & Du, H. (2025) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506251388682 · Cited by 1
“…such as taking financial risks (Payne et al., 2017), committing crimes for monetary gain (Wei et al., 2023), engaging in conspicuous consumption (Du et al., 2022), or supporting—or opposing—redis-tribution based on one’s economic interests (McCall et al., 2017; Sands, 2017; Sands & de Kadt, 2020).”
Perceived Inequality and its Relationship with Perceived Mobility in Today's China
Li, S., & Liu, A. (2025) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-025-03755-y · Cited by 1
“Indeed, a growing number of studies have begun to assess people’s perceived level of economic inequality and its relationship with perceived chances of social mobility (Brow-man et al., 2022; Davidai, 2018; McCall et al., 2017; Melita et al., 2023).”
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Sin, P., Hing, L. S. S., Pereira, S., & Gill, H. (2026) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-025-00469-x · Cited by 1
The Making of Meritocratic Status Orders
Accominotti, F., & Sauder, M. (2026) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-090225-014158 · Cited by 1
Go, M. H., Kweon, Y., Miwa, H., & Ono, Y. (2026) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfag030 · Cited by 1
“Empirical evidence shows that accurate information about economic inequality increases support for redistributive measures, such as higher public spending on education or more progressive taxation (McCall et al. 2017 ; Boudreau and MacKenzie 2018).”
Leipziger, L. E., Aarslew, L. F., & Christensen, M. E. (2026) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfag029 · Cited by 1
What do the upwardly mobile think they deserve, and why? A multi-method investigation
Simpson, B., & Melamed, D. (2019) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2019.100459 · Cited by 1
Governale, A. (2022) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283221120641 · Cited by 1
“Similarly, participants who rated structural factors, instead of individual characteristics, as major gateways to economic success endorsed higher support for government policies to redistribute wealth (McCall et al., 2017).”
Iturra-Sanhueza, J., Castillo, J. C., Rufs, C., & Maldonado, L. (2023) · Estudios Sociológicos de El Colegio de México · doi:10.24201/es.2023v41n122.2260 · Cited by 1
National patterns of inequality coverage: Japanese and South Korean newspapers, 1990–2021
Asahina, Y., Roh, J., & Yang, J. (2023) · International Sociology · doi:10.1177/02685809231195958 · Cited by 1
“…has the potential to influence people’s belief about inequality, although there is considerable heterogeneity in the ways this potential manifests across demographic groups and different national contexts (Alesina et al., 2018; Diermeier et al., 2017; McCall et al., 2017; Mijs and Hoy, 2022).”
BackgroundPolitics of Boundary Consolidation: Income Inequality, Ethnonationalism, and Radical-Right Voting
Lukk, M. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241251714 · Cited by 1
“Studies testing this model show that income inequality promotes demands for redistribution (McCall et al. 2017; Schmidt-Catran 2016), although individual and contextual factors moderate this relationship (e.g., Breznau and Hommerich 2019).”
Diverse representation in entertainment awards and racial inequality beliefs
Ikeuchi, R. (2025) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103159 · Cited by 2
Im, H., Shane, J., & Chen, C. (2025) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2025.2543846 · Cited by 1
“These pervasive patterns support the claim that people possess nuanced beliefs about socioeconomic mobility and differentiate between inequalities stemming from opportunity versus outcomes (McCall, 2013; McCall et al., 2017).”
A Network-Based Explanation of Perceived Inequality
Schulz, J., Mayerhoffer, D., & Gebhard, A. (2021) · doi:10.20378/irb-49393 · Cited by 1
“…information about the actual degree of inequality seems to exhibit a significant effect on redistributive preferences for Argentina, Sweden and the US (Cruces et al. 2013; McCall et al. 2017; Karadja et al. 2017), with however small and insignificant effects for Germany (Engelhardt & Wagener 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialCultural Tariffing: Appropriation and the Right to Cross Cultural BoundariesPreprint
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“That is, their research generally finds that priming unfairness does not generally move policy views left (in contrast to McCall et al., 2017), but as before, their study does do not assess how priming structural fairness might affect policy preferences.”
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“…and Norton 2014; Norton and Ariely 2011), presenting them with more accurate data about the U.S. wealth distribution increases their support for interventions designed to reduce financial inequities, such as taxing the wealthy and giving income assistance to the poor (McCall et al. 2017).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- McCall, L., Burk, D., Laperrière, M., & Richeson, J. A.
- Affiliations
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- Northwestern University (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2017-08-22
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 36
- Pages
- 9593-9598
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC5594671
- OpenAlex
- W2747618620
- Cited by
- 226
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 9
- FWCI
- 35.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Russell Sage Foundation (83-13-05)
- National Science Foundation (TESS)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Income, Poverty, and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Social Policy and Reform Studies
- Keywords
- economic inequality, structural inequality, individual effort, policy support, inequality reduction, public skepticism, information exposure, social mobility, United States
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Humans, Income, Politics, Public Policy, Surveys and Questionnaires, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Models, Economic
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