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The neural basis of task-switching in working memory: effects of performance and aging.
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We studied the performance of young and senior subjects on a well known working memory task, the Operation Span. This is a dual-task in which subjects perform a memory task while simultaneously verifying simple equations. Positron-emission tomography scans were taken during performance. Both young and senior subjects demonstrated a cost in accuracy and latency in the Operation Span compared with performing each component task alone (math verification or memory only). Senior subjects were disproportionately impaired relative to young subjects on the dual-task. When brain activation was examined for senior subjects, we found regions in prefrontal cortex that were active in the dual-task, but not in the component tasks. Similar results were obtained for young subjects who performed relatively poorly on the dual-task; however, for young subjects who performed relatively well in the dual-task, we found no prefrontal regions that were active only in the dual-task. Results are discussed as they relate to the executive component of task switching.
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“suggesting that dual tasking may require both WM capacity and IC mechanisms (Towse et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2001; Unsworth, 2010; Chein et al., 2011).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Smith et al., 2001
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BackgroundContributions of Cognitive Neuroscience to the Understanding of Behavior and Aging
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“…for this pattern of activation is that dlFPC instead supports a strategic manipulation rather than increased working memory capacity (Smith et al., 2001). bvFTD patients have working memory deficits (Libon et al., 2007) and this can potentially interfere with their comprehension of…”
BackgroundResultRasmussen, I.-A., Xu, J., Antonsen, I. K., Brunner, J. F., Skandsen, T., Axelson, D. E., Berntsen, E. M., Lydersen, S., & Haberg, A. K. (2008) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2008.0520 · Cited by 32
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InfluentialAltmann, L. J. P., Stegemöller, E. L., Hazamy, A. A., Wilson, J. P., Okun, M. S., McFarland, N. R., Shukla, A. W., & Hass, C. J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125470 · Cited by 33
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“Previous neuroimaging studies have indicated that the functional cooperation between the ACC and DLPFC is neural bases for executive processes (D’Esposito et al. 1995; Bunge et al. 2000; Smith et al. 2001 ), and the function of the left and right singuloprefrontal networks varies with the modality of tasks (Stephan et…”
Cognitive Control and the Ageing Brain
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“PCG and post-CG were also activated, and these areas are important for rehearsal of verbal information (Smith et al., 2000).”
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BackgroundLanguage distance modulates cognitive control in bilinguals
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ResultPhonological similarity effects in simple and complex span tasks
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Wager, T. D., Spicer, J., Insler, R. Z., & Smith, E. E. (2011) · Nature Precedings · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0226-y · Cited by 26
“…in contrast to the hundreds of published WM studies, only a handful have reported relationships between PFC activity and behavioral performance (Gray, Chabris, & Braver, 2003; Jha et al., 2004; Pessoa et al., 2002; Rypma, Berger, & D’Esposito, 2002; Rypma & D’Esposito, 2003; Smith et al., 2001).”
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“Also, past research has shown that older patients require greater neural resources, that is, a wider neurocognitive network, for successful performance on visual versus verbal WM tests than younger patients (Habeck, Rakitin, Steffener, & Stern, 2012; Smith et al., 2001).”
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“…that the chunking-gradient is related to GM atrophy in frontal regions including bilateral dlPFC which have previously been associated with increased capacity of working memory (e.g., Botvinick et al., 2001), and with strategic manipulation of materials in working memory (e.g., Smith et al., 2001).”
The Effect of Education on Age-Related Functional Activation During Working Memory
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“, 1993) nor does it have trials where subjects do not have to memorize any samples for extended periods of time (Collette et al., 1999; Crosson et al., 1999; Koelsch et al., 2009; Schumacher et al., 1996; Smith et al., 2001).”
BackgroundCognitive effort and impulsivity
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Neural evidence for the use of digit-image mnemonic in a superior memorist: an fMRI study
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“the recruitment of additional areas, often bilaterally, while elderly participants solved dual tasks or tasks imposing a heavy load on working memory capacity (Reuter-Lorentz et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2001).”
Visuospatial bootstrapping: Aging and the facilitation of verbal memory by spatial displays.
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“Similar, and at times greater activation within inferior frontal, orbitofrontal, and parietal regions has also been reported in adults over 60 years of age during task switching [Christakou et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2001; Townsend et al., 2006].”
ResultResting-state EEG network variability predicts individual working memory behavior
Chen, C., Xu, S., Zhou, J., Yi, C., Yu, L., Yao, D., Zhang, Y., Li, F., & Xu, P. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121120 · Cited by 11
“Previous studies have high-lighted substantial inter-individual variations in resource requirements for performing WM tasks, with high-performing subjects demonstrating greater efficiency compared to low-performing ones (Daffner et al., 2011; Rypma and D ’ Esposito, 2000; Smith et al., 2001).”
Recent trends in the cognitive neuroscience of working memory
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“…associated with the WM span task is compared to storage-only and then to processing-only and then the conjunction of these two analyses is taken as evidence of activity associated with WM span, above and beyond the component parts (for similar studies, see Bunge et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2001).”
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“Importantly, task-switching is also considered to be an executive-level ability (Smith et al., 2001; Steele, Karmiloff-Smith, Cornish, & Scerif, 2012).”
BackgroundVagal Recovery From Cognitive Challenge Moderates Age-Related Deficits in Executive Functioning
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“For example, Smith et al. (2001) reported that older adults (aged 65–72) and younger adults (aged 18–29) who performed poorly on a task-switching test recruited left PFC during their performance, but younger adults who performed well did not show this prefrontal activation.”
Recordação livre de palavras e memória operacional em idosos
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“Previous studies have shown that in elderly people, executive function is supported by the left superior parietal (53, 54), and it has been suggested that the left superior parietal gyrus is engaged in basic attentional processing in executive function (55, 56).”
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“The involvement of working memory and inhibitory control in cognitive flexibility abilities has been well documented [63-70], with the present findings replicating such work.”
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Investigating Age-Related Neural Compensation During Emotion Perception Using Electroencephalography
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“This has been found in other brain imaging studies, including melodic expectancy processing [60], attention [61–63], working memory [64,65] and executive functioning [66].”
ResultBrain Development: An Overview
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“Such age-related increases in PFC activation are the most consistent finding across various studies of cognitive aging with tasks that tap such executive functions as inhibitory control, task switching, dual-task performance, and reasoning [27,31,33,39,54].”
Hypothesized Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment During High-Intensity Acute Exercise
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Working Memory and Intelligence
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“Counting is considered a rhythmic task that involves working memory [99] and is more directly related to executive function [100, 101],. Combining this with other rhythmic tasks of different frequency such as repeated elbow flexion, may cause interference or be difficult to execute since dual-tasks…”
BackgroundAn fMRI study of verbal working memory-Effects of aging on ACC-PFC network connectivity-
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“…literature on task switching, which addresses a variety of areas including its cognitive cost (Stoet and Snyder 2003), age related performance (Smith et al. 2001), adaptive performance improvement (Schumacher et al. 2001), brain regions involved (Badre and Wagner 2006; Crone et al. 2006;…”
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“For comparison, we also examine the domain-general Multiple Demand (MD) network 86 , which supports executive abilities, such as attention, working memory, and cognitive control 62,86–88 — functions that are widely agreed to exhibit age-related decline 89–97 .”
Pearson, A. G., Miller, K. B., Corkery, A. T., Eisenmann, N. A., Howery, A. J., Carl, A., Eldridge, M. W., & Barnes, J. N. (2021) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00048.2021 · Cited by 4
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Metadata
- Authors
- Smith, E. E., Geva, A., Jonides, J., Miller, A., Reuter-Lorenz, P., & Koeppe, R. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Department of Psychology and Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- ORCID
- Koeppe, Robert A.
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2001-02-13
- Volume
- 98
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 2095-2100
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC29387
- OpenAlex
- W2097263602
- Cited by
- 200
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- task switching, working memory, operation span, aging, dual-task performance, prefrontal cortex, brain activation, executive function, older adults, individual differences in performance
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aging, Brain, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Neurons, Task Performance and Analysis, Tomography, Emission-Computed
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