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Cited by 96Cognitive Abilities and TestingNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Functions and Memory

Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults

Open access
Maraver, Maria J., Bajo, M. Teresa, Gomez-Ariza, Carlos J.·2016·Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00588PMC PMC5114277
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Abstract

Different types of interventions have focused on trying to improve Executive Functions (EF) due to their essential role in human cognition and behavior regulation. Although EF are thought to be diverse, most training studies have targeted cognitive processes related to working memory (WM), and fewer have focused on training other control mechanisms, such as inhibitory control (IC). In the present study, we aimed to investigate the differential impact of training WM and IC as compared with control conditions performing non-executive control activities. Young adults were divided into two training (WM/IC) and two (active/passive) control conditions. Over six sessions, the training groups engaged in three different computer-based adaptive activities (WM or IC), whereas the active control group completed a program with low control-demanding activities that mainly involved processing speed. In addition, motivation and engagement were monitored through the training. The WM-training activities required maintenance, updating and memory search processes, while those from the IC group engaged response inhibition, and interference control. All participants were pre- and post-tested in criterion tasks (n-back and Stroop), near transfer measures of WM (Operation Span) and IC (Stop-Signal). Non-trained far transfer outcome measures included an abstract reasoning test (Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices) and a well-validated experimental task (AX-CPT) that provides indices of cognitive flexibility considering proactive/reactive control. Training results revealed that strongly motivated participants reached higher levels of training improvements. Regarding transfer effects, results showed specific patterns of near transfer effects depending on the type of training. Interestingly, it was only the IC training group that showed far transfer to reasoning. Finally, all trained participants showed a shift towards a more proactive mode of cognitive control, highlighting a general effect of training on cognitive flexibility. The present results reveal specific and general modulations of executive control mechanisms after brief training intervention targeting either WM or IC.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study directly compared brief adaptive training of working memory (WM) versus inhibitory control (IC) in young adults against active and passive controls, finding largely specific near-transfer effects and a general shift toward proactive control. Only IC training showed far transfer to abstract reasoning, while WM training improved WM criterion and near-transfer measures.

Key findings

  • Training gains were task-specific: WMT improved memory set sizes on n-back (1.13 to 2.60), WM Search (2.21 to 4.92), and WM Updating (1.00 to 3.20); ICT reduced Stroop-like conflict (0.52 to 0.33) and Go/No-Go omission errors (3.50 to 1.43).
  • Near transfer was specific: only WMT improved n-back level/errors, and only ICT reduced Stop-Signal SSRT; both WMT and ICT improved O-Span combined scores, but only WMT reduced O-Span intrusions.
  • Far transfer and cognitive-control strategy: only ICT showed pre–post increase in Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices hits; both ICT and WMT showed larger AX-CPT Behavioral Shift Index, indicating a shift toward proactive control.
  • Motivation and predictors: high-motivated trained participants had higher training slopes (M = 9.39) than less-motivated participants (M = 7.82); baseline reasoning predicted training improvement (R² = 0.12), and in ICT higher training improvement predicted Stroop conflict gains (R² = 0.29) and RAPM gains (R² = 0.12).

Methods

  • One hundred twelve undergraduates (M age = 20.51 years; 83 females) were randomized after pre-test to ICT (n = 32), WMT (n = 32), active control (n = 24), or passive control (n = 24).
  • Training consisted of six sessions over 2 weeks, with three adaptive computer-based activities per trained group; controls completed low-executive-demand speed activities or only pre/post testing.
  • Pre/post outcomes included criterion tasks (n-back, Stroop), near transfer (Operation Span, Stop-Signal), and far transfer (AX-CPT, Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices); analyses used repeated-measures ANOVAs, standardized gains, correlations, and regressions.

Limitations

  • The paper states that some standardized gain comparisons lacked group effects, so results should be interpreted cautiously; null effects may reflect limited power or inflated variability.
  • The paper states the 2-week training schedule is at the lower end of current training studies, and no long-term follow-up was conducted.
  • The paper states young healthy adults may be near optimal at pre-test, limiting room for training-related improvement; evident in the text, a software coding error meant Stroop reaction times from 20 participants were not registered, and some high-motivation subgroup comparisons had small samples.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00588

Cites

138 of 138 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 105 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Transfer effects showed specific patterns of near transfer effects depending on the type of training.

    “Regarding transfer effects, results showed specific patterns of near transfer effects depending on the type of training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only the IC training group showed far transfer to reasoning.

    “Interestingly, it was only the IC training group that showed far transfer to reasoning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    All trained participants showed a shift toward a more proactive mode of cognitive control.

    “all trained participants showed a shift toward a more proactive mode of cognitive control”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Strongly motivated participants reached higher levels of training improvements.

    “Training results revealed that strongly motivated participants reached higher levels of training improvements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Post hoc comparisons for n-back level indicated that the only reliable difference was between the PC and WMT groups.

    “Post hoc comparisons for the n-back level indicated that the only reliable difference was between the PC and the WMT groups (p < 0.01)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 35
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both ICT and WMT groups exhibited larger BSI after training (reliable pre-post effect).

    “Nonetheless, the pre–post analyses only showed a reliable effect in both ICT and WMT groups, which exhibited larger BSI after the training (Table 1, ps ≤ 0.01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Further analyses showed a statistically significant difference between the AC and WMT groups, and between the two control groups, for n-back errors.

    “Further analyses showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the AC and WMT groups (p = 0.01), and between the two control groups (p < 0.01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    RAPM scores correlated with errors in the n-back task (r = -0.21; p = 0.10).

    “RAPM scores significantly correlated with errors in the n-back (r = -0.21; p = 0.10)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Only the WMT group showed a reliable reduction in n-back errors after training.

    “and a reduction in the number of errors committed after the training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no training-related effects on hits or on the RTs of Go trials.

    “Note that there were training-related effects neither on hits nor on the RTs of Go trials3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Only the WMT group showed a reliable increase in n-back level after training.

    “Table 1 shows that only the WMT group showed a reliable increase in the number of items that could be maintained/updated in WM”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The one-way ANOVA confirmed an effect of group on RAPM hit rates, mainly accounted for by the difference between the ICT and PC groups.

    “The one-way ANOVA confirmed an effect of group, F(3,108) = 2.63; p = 0.05; ηp2 = 0.06), which was mainly accounted for by the difference between the ICT and PC groups (post hoc comparison with p = 0.04).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no differences between the groups at pre-test in RAPM hit rates or reaction times.

    “There were no differences between the groups at pre-test in either hit rates [F(3,108) = 0.44; p = 0.72; ηp2 = 0.01], or reaction times [F(3,108) = 1.47; p = 0.22; ηp2 = 0.03].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was a reliable pre-post enhancement in O-Span combined scores in the three training groups, with the greatest effect size in the ICT group.

    “Particularly, there was a reliable pre–post enhancement in the three training groups, with the greatest effect size in the ICT group (Table 1).”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “both WMT and ICT groups improved dual performance (Equations accuracy × Words recalled) in the O-Span task”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    In average, our WMT participants reached an n-back level below three and performed a single n-back task.

    “Note that, in average, our WMT participants reached an n-back level below three and performed a single n-back task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some studies have failed to find behavioral transfer effects after training IC, while others have found positive near and far transfer effects after task-switching training across the lifespan of healthy individuals.

    “Although several of these studies have failed to find behavioral transfer effects after training IC (Thorell et al., 2009; Berkman et al., 2014; Enge et al., 2014), others have found positive near and far transfer effects after task-switching training across the lifespan of healthy individuals (Karbach and Kray, 2009)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Thorell et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Berkman et al., 2014 source

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    • cites Enge et al., 2014 source

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    Premisecitation

    Executive functions play an essential role in learning and academic achievement, knowledge acquisition, metacognition, and emotional and self-regulation.

    “substantial evidence supports the fact that EFs play an essential role in learning and academic achievement (Bull and Scerif, 2001; St Clair-Thompson and Gathercole, 2006), knowledge acquisition (Blair and Razza, 2007; Danielsson et al., 2010), metacognition (Fernandez-Duque et al., 2000) as well as emotional and self-regulation (Barkley, 2001; Hofmann et al., 2012).”
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    • cites Blair and Razza, 2007 source

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The Operation Span task used the Spanish adapted version of the procedure developed by Turner and Engle (1989).

    “We used the Spanish adapted version of the procedure developed by Turner and Engle (1989) (Turner and Engle, 1989; Tokowicz et al., 2004; Redick et al., 2012).”
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    • cites Turner and Engle (1989) source

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    • cites Tokowicz et al., 2004 source

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    • cites Redick et al., 2012 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committees of the University of Granada and carried out with written informed consent from all subjects.

    “This study was approved and carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Research Ethics Committees of the University of Granada, with written informed consent from all subjects.”
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    • cites World Medical Association, 2013 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Latent variable analyses showed that three different executive functions emerged from performance in a variety of tasks: switching, inhibitory control, and updating of information maintained in working memory.

    “Miyake et al. (2000; see also Miyake and Friedman, 2012) used latent variables analyses to show that, despite their unity indicated by shared features, three different EFs emerged from performance in a variety of tasks”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miyake et al. (2000; see also Miyake and Friedman, 2012)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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    Study design and conductown data

    There were no significant differences between groups in age or gender distribution.

    “There were no significant differences either in age (p = 0.76; ηp2 = 0.01) or in gender distribution (p = 0.92; ηp2 = 0.00).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four groups after pre-testing.

    “After pre-testing, they were randomly assigned to one of the four groups making up the study”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Stop-Signal task used the standard parameters of the software STOP-IT.

    “We used this task of response inhibition with the standard parameters of the software STOP-IT (Verbruggen et al., 2008).”
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    • cites Verbruggen et al., 2008

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    Study design and conductcitation

    Training difficulty was adaptive in order to maintain activities as a constant challenge.

    “Training difficulty was adaptive in order to maintain activities as a constant challenge (Klingberg et al., 2005; Brehmer et al., 2011; Karbach et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Klingberg et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Brehmer et al., 2011 source

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    • cites Karbach et al., 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    Passive control groups allow researchers to keep track of simple practice effects, while active control groups enable uncovering the specificity of different cognitive training procedures by maintaining similar motivation and reducing placebo effects.

    “Thus, passive control groups (PC) may allow researchers to keep track of simple practice effects, while active control (AC) groups may enable them to uncover the specificity of different cognitive training procedures by maintaining similar levels of motivation and reducing the possibility of placebo effects (Boot et al., 2013; Dougherty et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Boot et al., 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    Several studies have demonstrated positive effects of WM training in different age groups with transfer to trained and untrained domains such as mathematical performance.

    “Several studies have demonstrated positive effects of WM training in different age groups (Borella et al., 2010; Söderqvist et al., 2012; Jaeggi et al., 2013) with transfer to trained and untrained domains such as mathematical performance”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Borella et al., 2010 source

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    • cites Söderqvist et al., 2012 source

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    • cites Jaeggi et al., 2013 source

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    Study design and conductown data

    None of the participants withdrew from the study.

    “None of the participants withdrew from the study although they were informed they could do so if they wished.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The order of the activities in each training session was counterbalanced over all participants.

    “The order of the activities in each training session was also counterbalanced over all participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The active control group performed the same training protocol as the experimental groups but engaged in activities relying on perceptual abilities and progressively increasing speed demands without increments in executive load.

    “AC performed the same training protocol as their experimental counterparts, but they engaged in activities that relied on perceptual abilities and progressively increased their speed demands, without increments in executive load (Peng et al., 2012; Takeuchi and Kawashima, 2012; Lawlor-Savage and Goghari, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Peng et al., 2012 source

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    • cites Takeuchi and Kawashima, 2012

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    • cites Lawlor-Savage and Goghari, 2016 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Distinct executive control strategies (proactive versus reactive) have been proposed to support cognitive flexibility.

    “the adjustment of distinct executive control strategies (proactive versus reactive), which have been proposed to support cognitive flexibility2 (Braver et al., 2009; Burgess et al., 2011; Braver, 2012).”
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    • cites Braver et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Braver, 2012 source

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    Study design and conductown data

    Five participants were excluded from the Stop-Signal analysis because they had an overall probability of responding on stop trials significantly below or above 50% in both pre- and post-test.

    “we removed five participants (one ICT, one WMT, one AC, and two PC participants) from the analysis, since they had an overall probability of responding on stop trials significantly below or above 50% in both pre- and post-test.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Eight participants were removed from the AX-CPT analysis because they had more than 10% of invalid trials in pre- and post-test.

    “Eight participants were removed from the analysis because they had more than 10% of invalid trials in pre- and post-test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Training effects were only evident in the SSRT as an index of response inhibition, but not in the other variables that assess basic task performance.

    “Thus, training effects were only evident in the SSRT as an index of response inhibition, but not in the other variables that assess basic task performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Active control activities were significantly easier than the executive control ones, facilitating advancement through the activity levels.

    “This is consistent with the fact that active control activities were significantly easier that the executive control ones, facilitating the advancement through the activity levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    WM and IC seem to represent two separate executive functions and may therefore have separate effects.

    “The direct comparison of these two types of programs is theoretically interesting since, according to some proposals, WM and IC seem to represent two separate EFs and may therefore have separate effects (Miyake et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miyake et al., 2000 source

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    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have reported that at baseline, reasoning predicts training achievement.

    “previous studies have already reported that at baseline, reasoning predicts training achievement (Bürki et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bürki et al., 2014 source

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    Study design and conductnone given

    Two random task orders for evaluation were created and counterbalanced across participants.

    “We created two random task orders for evaluation that were counterbalanced across participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Despite studies showing positive results after training in young adults, its effectiveness is still controversial and far transfer effects are not always obtained.

    “despite the studies showing positive results after training in young adults, its effectiveness is still controversial and far transfer effects are not always obtained (Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schwaighofer et al., 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    At the behavioral level, transfer effects could be expected in potentially related cognitive functions and lead to enhanced performance in a variety of tasks that, although untrained, share the same cognitive mechanism as the targeted trained processes.

    “Similarly, at the behavioral level, transfer effects could be expected in potentially related cognitive functions, and lead to enhanced performance in a variety tasks that, although untrained, share the same cognitive mechanism than the targeted trained processes (Morrison and Chein, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morrison and Chein, 2011 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The WM-training activities required maintenance, updating and memory search processes, while the IC group activities engaged response inhibition and interference control.

    “The WM-training activities required maintenance, updating and memory search processes, while those from the IC group engaged response inhibition and interference control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our results replicate and extend previous findings by showing behavioral shifts toward proactive processing in both ICT and WMT, suggesting some common executive resources for inhibitory and WM processes.

    “Our results replicate and extend these findings by showing behavioral shifts toward proactive processing in both ICT and WMT (even though numerically larger in the WMT group), suggesting again some common executive resources for inhibitory and WM processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Individual differences before training might influence how well people do during training and how much benefit they can take from it.

    “This pattern of results highlights the importance of considering individual differences before training because they might influence how well they do during training and how much benefit they can take from it (Könen and Karbach, 2015).”
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    • cites Könen and Karbach, 2015

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    Premisecitation

    Faster speed processing has been proposed to reduce the possibility of items being forgotten, and less time for rehearsing or refreshing processes.

    “Similarly, faster speed processing has been proposed to reduce the possibility of items being forgotten, and less time for rehearsing or refreshing processes (Towse et al., 2000; Hudjetz and Oberauer, 2007; Unsworth et al., 2009).”
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    • cites Towse et al., 2000 source

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    • cites Hudjetz and Oberauer, 2007

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    • cites Unsworth et al., 2009 source

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    Premisecitation

    Proactive control requires goal maintenance and is related to paying attention to contextual cues in order to effectively solve interference while keeping the monitored cues in mind.

    “Proactive control requires goal maintenance and is related to paying attention to contextual cues in order to effectively solve interference while keeping the monitored cues in mind (Rush et al., 2006).”
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    • cites Rush et al., 2006 source

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    Premisecitation

    Fluid intelligence and WM share common variance.

    “Although fluid intelligence and WM share common variance (Colom et al., 2004; Oberauer et al., 2005; Friedman et al., 2006; Harrison et al., 2015)”
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    • cites Colom et al., 2004 source

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    • cites Oberauer et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Friedman et al., 2006 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    IC seem to be demanded not only in the training activities practiced by the ICT group but also in the WM updating tasks that required suppression of irrelevant information and that were extensively practiced by the WMT group.

    “Hence, IC seem to be demanded not only in the training activities practiced by our ICT group but also in the WM updating tasks that required suppression of irrelevant information and that were extensively practiced by the WMT group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The AX-CPT is widely used to explore the dynamic adjustment of cognitive control strategies and it has shown to be very sensitive to individual differences in cognitive control.

    “The AX-CPT is widely used to explore the dynamic adjustment of cognitive control strategies and it has shown to be very sensitive to individual differences in cognitive control (Braver et al., 2009; Burgess et al., 2011; Braver, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Braver et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Burgess et al., 2011 source

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    • cites Braver, 2012 source

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    Premisecitation

    Previous studies reporting positive training effects have normally used single but highly demanding tasks, such as the dual n-back task, and/or participants attained high levels of performance over training, such as n-back levels of over 3.

    “Previous studies reporting positive training effects have normally used single but highly demanding tasks, such as the dual n-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2008, 2010, 2013) and/or participants attained high levels of performance over training, such as n-back levels of over 3 (Jaeggi et al., 2008, 2013).”
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    • cites Jaeggi et al., 2008 source

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    Premisecitation

    EFs have been related to reasoning operations.

    “and EFs have been related to reasoning operations (Dempster and Corkill, 1999; Engle and Kane, 2004; Jarosz and Wiley, 2012; Shipstead et al., 2015)”
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    • cites Dempster and Corkill, 1999 source

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    • cites Engle and Kane, 2004

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    • cites Jarosz and Wiley, 2012

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    Interpretationown data

    The results of the present experiment generally support the assumption that EFs training could specifically be targeted to one of these functions with transfer effects showing some degree of specificity and commonality.

    “The results of the present experiment generally support this assumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The EFs system can be partitioned into overlapping (unity) and yet distinct (diversity) components (inhibition, shifting, and WM updating).

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Unsworth et al. (2009) reported a negative correlation between processing speed and WM maintenance.

    “Unsworth et al. (2009) reported a negative correlation between processing speed and WM maintenance”
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    • cites Unsworth et al., 2009 source

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    Interpretationown data

    The results of the non-verbal reasoning (RAPM) task showed some degree of specificity: a benefit for the ICT group but not for the WMT group.

    “the results of the non-verbal reasoning (RAPM) task showed some degree of specificity. Specifically, we observed a benefit for the ICT group but not for the WMT group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Enhanced proactive control is expected to increase AY errors and reduce BX errors, with the BSI tending to larger values.

    “Thus, enhanced proactive control is expected to increase AY errors and reduce BX errors, with the BSI tending to larger values since the cue in BX trials does not signal a “yes” response.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have reported the malleability of cognitive control mechanisms engaged in the AX-CPT due to experience-based conditions such as bilingualism or different kinds of training interventions.

    “Previous studies have already reported the malleability of cognitive control mechanisms engaged in the AX-CPT due to experience-based conditions such as bilingualism (Morales et al., 2013, 2015) or different kinds of training interventions”
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    Study design and conductown data

    The present training schedule covered 2 weeks.

    “Second, the present training schedule covered 2 weeks, which is in the lower end of the range of the current training studies (from 2 to 14 weeks; Morrison and Chein, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Control activities were mainly perceptual and successive levels did not engage greater executive load but only faster responses with a low constant cognitive effort.

    “Note again that control activities were mainly perceptual and successive levels did not engage greater executive load but only faster responses with a low constant cognitive effort.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    In our study, we took these factors into account by using different tasks to train the target processes, by introducing two different control conditions (active and passive), and by considering motivational variables associated with training.

    “In our study, we took these factors into account by using different tasks to train the target processes (and to increase the probability of generalization), by introducing two different control conditions (active and passive), and by considering motivational variables associated with training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Motivation is related to greater improvements that could result in greater transfer effects.

    “Thus, and consistent with previous studies, motivation this result highlights the importance of considering individual motivation through training, since it is related to greater improvements that could result in greater transfer effects (Mather and Carstensen, 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2013; Katz et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mather and Carstensen, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Jaeggi et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Katz et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Our study is blind regarding possible long-term effects since we did not follow them up in time.

    “Similarly, our study is blind regarding possible long-term effects since we did not follow them up in time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Training studies with large effect sizes normally included small sample sizes (less than 20 participants per training condition) and untreated (passive) control groups, which produces biases toward significant - but low powered - results.

    “In a recent meta-analysis, Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016) established that training studies with large effect sizes normally included small sample sizes (less than 20 participants per training condition) and untreated (passive) control groups, which produces biases toward significant – but low powered – results (Enge et al., 2014; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Enge et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Current training studies range from 2 to 14 weeks.

    “Second, the present training schedule covered 2 weeks, which is in the lower end of the range of the current training studies (from 2 to 14 weeks; Morrison and Chein, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morrison and Chein, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous training studies have been criticized for the suitability of the control conditions, for not considering motivational factors, or for the use of single training tasks.

    “Previous training studies have been criticized for the suitability of the control conditions, for not considering motivational factors, or for the use of single training tasks (Jaeggi et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jaeggi et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Redick et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    In the present study, we used samples that were all over 20 participants per condition and we included a passive control group as well as an active control group.

    “In the present study, we used samples that were all over 20 participants per condition and we included a passive control group as well as an active control group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
58 of 58

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Generalization to non-trained tasks can occur whenever there is cognitive and neural overlap between the trained processes and those engaged in the outcome measures.

    “Based on the key assumption that generalization to non-trained tasks could occur whenever there is cognitive and neural overlap between the trained processes and those engaged in the outcome measures (Woodworth and Thorndike, 1901; Persson and Reuter-Lorenz, 2008; Hussey and Novick, 2012)”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The high executive control demands of both training programs would encourage participants to focus on contextual cues and enhance reliance on cue processing rather than probe processing on the AX-CPT task.

    “This hypothesis is based on the assumption that the high executive control demands of both training programs would encourage participants to focus on contextual cues and, hence, to enhanced reliance on cue processing (rather than probe processing) on the AX-CPT task.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The EFs system can be partitioned into overlapping (unity) and yet distinct (diversity) components (inhibition, shifting, and WM updating).

    “These two programs were based on the assumption of the highly influential “Unity and Diversity” model of EFs proposed by Miyake et al. (2000). The main feature of this model is that the EFs system could be partitioned into overlapping (unity) and yet distinct (diversity) components (inhibition, shifting, and WM updating).”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • There is no consensus on transfer to inhibitory control measures, with some WM training studies reporting benefits and others not.

    “there is no consensus regarding transfer to inhibitory control measures, with some WM training studies reporting training-related benefits59,60,71,72, yet others failing to find evidence of transfer51,73.”

    From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [73]

  • In four studies, participants trained on other updating working memory tasks in addition to N-back, which prevents understanding the separate contributions of these tasks to transfer.

    “In four studies, participants trained on other types of updating WM tasks in addition to the N-back, which precludes understanding of the individual contributions of these training tasks to transfer (Maraver et al. 2016; Waris et al. 2015; Kühn et al. 2013; Loosli et al. 2016).”

    From Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training (2020) · cites this paper as Maraver et al. 2016

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Stop-Signal gain ANOVA degrees of freedom do not match table sample sizes

    Minor

    The Stop-Signal group sizes in Table 1 total 104. A four-group ANOVA on those participants would have 100 residual degrees of freedom, whereas the reported group-effect test has 104.

  • Correlation called significant despite p = 0.10

    Minor

    The paper calls the RAPM-n-back-errors correlation significant while reporting p = 0.10 for it.

  • Stroop ANOVA degrees of freedom do not match table sample sizes

    Minor

    The four Stroop group sizes in Table 1 sum to 91, which would give 87 residual degrees of freedom in a four-group one-way ANOVA, not the reported 88.

  • Operation Span trial count conflicts with its set sizes

    Minor

    Set sizes 2 through 6 give five set sizes. Three trials at each size would make 15 trials, rather than the stated 18.

4 of 4

Cites

1 retracted

Flagged first, then by citations

6 of the 144 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Braver, 2001, Working memory, cognitive control, and the prefrontal cortex: computational and empirical studies., Cogn. Process., 2, 25
  2. Dowsett, 2000, The development of inhibitory control in preschool children: effects of “executive skills” training., Dev. Psychobiol., 36, 161, 10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(200003)36:2161::aid-dev73.0.co;2-0 · DOI
  3. Raven, 1990, Advanced Progressive Matrices: Sets I, II.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Maraver, M. J., Bajo, M. T., & Gomez-Ariza, C. J.
Affiliations
Universidad de Granada (ES)
ORCID
Bajo, M. Teresa
Venue
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2016-11-18
Volume
10
Pages
588-588
ISSN
1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fnhum.2016.00588
PMC
PMC5114277
OpenAlex
W2549539255
Semantic Scholar
bd83f2c4b946e856737ab9b3a477686eca71492e
Cited by
96
References
144
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 2
FWCI
9.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Institutional Repository of the University of Granada (University of Granada) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (PCIN-2015-132, PSI2012-33625, PSI2015-65502-C2-2-P, PSI2011-25797)
  • Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucía (P12-CTS-2369-Fondos Feder)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords
working memory training, inhibitory control training, executive function, cognitive flexibility, proactive control, far transfer, near transfer, motivation and engagement, response inhibition, interference control, young adults, computer-based training

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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