Examining teacher stress-vulnerability in the US secondary school context.
Abstract
Understanding how teachers appraise their environments for potential demands and resources can inform education stakeholders interested in mitigating vocational stress. Using data from the United States National Center for Education Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey, the current study examined how secondary teachers’ appraisals of their workplace environments correlated with their risk for stress, workplace fatigue, and occupational commitment to remain in teaching. Findings indicated that teachers who perceive greater classroom control were less vulnerable to occupational stress and other vocational concerns. Teachers working out of their subject area field were associated with higher susceptibility to workplace fatigue. Unique to the secondary education environment, results also found that schools with high concentrations of stress-vulnerable teachers were associated with higher levels of average workplace fatigue and lower levels of occupational commitment. The results of this study suggest that “upstream” interventions, aimed at addressing systemic issues within schools, might ameliorate the risk for stress among secondary school teachers.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Teacher stress factors contribute to low job satisfaction, reduced occupational commitment, and high rates of attrition.
“Together, these factors contribute to low job satisfaction (Liu and Ramsey, 2008; McCarthy, 2019), reduced occupational commitment (McCarthy, 2019; Fitchett et al., 2021), and high rates of attrition (Boe et al., 2008; Conley and You, 2009).”
From Mental and physical training with meditation and aerobic exercise improved mental health and well-being in teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as Fitchett et al., 2021
Teachers are likely to experience workplace fatigue and burnout as a result of work-related stress.
“Teachers are also likely to experience workplace fatigue (Fitchett et al., 2021) and burnout (Haberman, 2005; Bottiani et al., 2019) as a result of work-related stress.”
From Mental and physical training with meditation and aerobic exercise improved mental health and well-being in teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as Fitchett et al., 2021
Cites
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833 · see citing works
The Job Demands‐Resources model: state of the art
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683940710733115 · Cited by 12,996 · see citing works
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397 · Cited by 12,852 · see citing works
Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.248 · Cited by 9,297 · see citing works
Educational Organizations as Loosely Coupled Systems
Weick, K. E. (1976) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2391875 · Cited by 7,417 · see citing works
Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions.
Siegrist, J. (1996) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27 · Cited by 5,713 · see citing works
Freudenberger, H. J. (1974) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00706.x · Cited by 5,463 · see citing works
Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410010304 · Cited by 3,053 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Transactional models of stress, first proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984, 1987), offer an alternative approach.”
BackgroundTeacher Turnover and Teacher Shortages: An Organizational Analysis
Ingersoll, R. M. (2001) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312038003499 · Cited by 2,989 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Inadequate support from the academic administration, issues with student discipline, and low workplace satisfaction also contribute to higher attrition (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChanging teachers, changing times: teachers' work and culture in the postmodern age
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-0440 · Cited by 2,717 · see citing works
Klassen, R., & Chiu, M. M. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019237 · Cited by 2,544 · see citing works
Teacher stress: Directions for future research
Kyriacou, C. (2001) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131910120033628 · Cited by 1,919 · see citing works
(1984) · Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Québec government) · Cited by 1,848 · see citing works
Teacher Sorting and the Plight of Urban Schools: A Descriptive Analysis
Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2002) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737024001037 · Cited by 1,600 · see citing works
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2011) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.04.001 · Cited by 1,579 · see citing works
The shame of the nation: the restoration of apartheid schooling in America
(2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-4166 · Cited by 1,552 · see citing works
Teacher Recruitment and Retention: A Review of the Recent Empirical Literature
Guarino, C. M., Santibáñez, L., & Daley, G. A. (2006) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543076002173 · Cited by 1,352 · see citing works
An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers
Chang, M.-L. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y · Cited by 1,349 · see citing works
How teacher turnover harms student achievement
Ronfeldt, M., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2013) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831212463813 · Cited by 1,324 · see citing works
Teacher characteristics and student achievement gains: A review
Wayne, A. J., & Youngs, P. (2003) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543073001089 · Cited by 1,282 · see citing works
Evaluating stress : a book of resources
Zalaquett, C. P., & Wood, R. J. (1997) · Scarecrow Press eBooks · Cited by 1,176 · see citing works
Westman, M. (2001) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726701546002 · Cited by 979 · see citing works
What types of interventions generate inequalities? Evidence from systematic reviews
Lorenc, T., Petticrew, M., Welch, V., & Tugwell, P. (2013) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2012-201257 · Cited by 927 · see citing works
Johnson, S. M., Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2012) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811211401004 · Cited by 822 · see citing works
The Influence of School Administrators on Teacher Retention Decisions
Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Ing, M., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2011) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831210380788 · Cited by 710 · see citing works
Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters and What We Can Do About It
Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling‐Hammond, L. (2017) · doi:10.54300/454.278 · Cited by 704 · see citing works
Handbook of Education Policy Research
(2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203880968 · Cited by 693 · see citing works
Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000035 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Hargreaves, A. (2005) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2005.06.007 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
How Teaching Conditions Predict Teacher Turnover in California Schools
Loeb, S., Darling‐Hammond, L., & Luczak, J. (2005) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1207/s15327930pje8003_4 · Cited by 612 · see citing works
Explaining the Short Careers of High-Achieving Teachers in Schools with Low-Performing Students
Boyd, D. J., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2005) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282805774669628 · Cited by 569 · see citing works
Relational Meaning and Discrete Emotions
Lazarus, R. S. (2001) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195130072.003.0003 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Teacher Turnover in High-Poverty Schools: What We Know and Can Do
Simon, N. S., & Johnson, S. M. (2015) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811511700305 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Pearson, L. C., & Moomaw, W. (2005) · Educational research quarterly · Cited by 548 · see citing works
Finders and keepers: helping new teachers survive and thrive in our schools
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-1701 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Special Education Teacher Burnout: A Synthesis of Research from 1979 to 2013
Brunsting, N. C., Sreckovic, M. A., & Lane, K. L. (2014) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1353/etc.2014.0032 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience
Goldstein, E. B. (2004) · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Our Impoverished View of Educational Research
Berliner, D. C. (2006) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00682.x · Cited by 455 · see citing works
A structural model of the dimensions of teacher stress
Boyle, G. J., Borg, M. G., Falzon, J. M., & Baglioni, A. J. (1995) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1995.tb01130.x · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Ladd, H. F. (2011) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373711398128 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Framing Teacher Preparation Research
Cochran‐Smith, M., & Villegas, A. M. (2014) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487114549072 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Developmental Stages of Preschool Teachers
Katz, L. G. (1972) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/460731 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Droogenbroeck, F. V., Spruyt, B., & Vanroelen, C. (2014) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.07.005 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Who controls teachers' work?: power and accountability in America's schools
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-1052 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2017) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-016-9363-9 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Jepson, E., & Forrest, S. E. (2006) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709905x37299 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
The effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing teacher burnout: A meta-analysis
Iancu, A. E., Rusu, A., Măroiu, C., Păcurar, R., & Maricuțoiu, L. P. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-017-9420-8 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Burnout Contagion Processes Among Teachers<sup>1</sup>
Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2000) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02437.x · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Understanding the Links between Work Commitment Constructs
Hackett, R. D., Lapierre, L., & Hausdorf, P. A. (2001) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1006/jvbe.2000.1776 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Advancements in crossover theory
Bakker, A. B., Westman, M., & van Emmerik, I. H. (2009) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683940910939304 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Grossi, G., Perski, A., Osika, W., & Savic, I. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12251 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Teacher stress and coping strategies: a national snapshot.
Richards, J. (2012) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131725.2012.682837 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Teacher Stress: The Mediating Role of Collective Efficacy Beliefs
Klassen, R. M. (2010) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903383069 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
TEACHING ‘OUT-OF-FIELD’ AS A BOUNDARY-CROSSING EVENT: FACTORS SHAPING TEACHER IDENTITY
Hobbs, L. (2012) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-012-9333-4 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Sociological concepts in the etiology of chronic disease: The case of ischemic heart disease
Siegrist, J., Siegrist, K., & Weber, I. (1986) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(86)90073-0 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
The Relation of Elementary Teachers' Experience, Stress, and Coping Resources to Burnout Symptoms
McCarthy, C. J. (2008) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/592308 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationTheorell, T., Karasek, R. A., & Eneroth, P. H. E. (1990) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.1990.tb00115.x · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Veteran teachers: commitment, resilience and quality retention
Day, C. W., & Gu, Q. (2009) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540600903057211 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
McCarthy, C. J., Lambert, R. G., Lineback, S., Fitchett, P. G., & Baddouh, P. G. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9322-6 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Self-citationSchool Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?
Baker, R. S., Boger, J. C., & Orfield, G. (2006) · The Journal of Southern History · doi:10.2307/27649307 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Donaldson, M. L., & Johnson, S. M. (2010) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373710367680 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Ingersoll, R. M. (2002) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e547052012-001 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
A systematic review of the relationship between self‐efficacy and burnout in teachers
Brown, C. G. (2012) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2012.29.4.47 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The Education Production Function: Its Evolving Role in Policy Analysis
Monk, D. H. (1989) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.2307/1163714 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
High stakes testing, accountability, incentives and consequences in English schools
West, A. (2010) · Policy & Politics · doi:10.1332/030557309x445591 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Out-of-Field Teachers and Student Achievement
Dee, T. S., & Cohodes, S. (2007) · Public Finance Review · doi:10.1177/1091142106289330 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Ready to Lead, but How? Teachers’ Experiences in High-Poverty Urban Schools
Johnson, S. M., Reinhorn, S. K., Charner‐Laird, M., Kraft, M. A., Ng, M., & Papay, J. P. (2014) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811411601005 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Burnout contagion: Is it due to early career teachers' social networks or organizational exposure?
Kim, J., Youngs, P. A., & Frank, K. A. (2017) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.017 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Editorial Teacher Attrition: An Issue of National Concern
Jalongo, M. R., & Heider, K. (2006) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-006-0122-y · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Accountability and Sanctions in English Schools
West, A., Mattei, P., & Roberts, J. (2011) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/00071005.2010.529416 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Gilbert, R. B., Adesope, O., & Schroeder, N. L. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.814193 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
The Micropolitics of Educational Inequality: The Case of Teacher–Student Assignments
Grissom, J. A., Kalogrides, D., & Loeb, S. (2015) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0161956x.2015.1087768 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
education production functions
Hanushek, E. A. (2008) · The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics · doi:10.1057/9780230226203.0448 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Flannery, K. B., Frank, J. L., Kato, M. M., Doren, B., & Fenning, P. (2013) · The High School journal/The High school journal · doi:10.1353/hsj.2013.0015 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Learning To Teach in an Age of Accountability
Costigan, A. T., Zumwalt, K. K., & Crocco, M. S. (2004) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410610959 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Lambert, R. G., McCarthy, C. J., Fitchett, P. G., Lineback, S., & Reiser, J. (2015) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.v23.1792 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy Do They Teach? A Comparison of Elementary, High School, and College Teachers
Marston, S. H. (2010) · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Committed for Life? Variations in Teachers' Work, Lives and Effectiveness
Day, C. W., Sammons, P., Gu, Q., Kington, A., & Stobart, G. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2358-2_4 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Job Satisfaction Among Turkish Teachers
Büyükgöze‐Kavas, A., Duffy, R. D., Güneri, O. Y., & Autin, K. L. (2013) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072713493980 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Prevalence and Organisational Factors of Psychological Injury Among Australian School Teachers
Garrick, A., Winwood, P. C., Mak, A. S., Cathcart, S., Bakker, A. B., & Lushington, K. (2014) · Australasian Journal of Organisational Psychology · doi:10.1017/orp.2014.5 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Feuerborn, L. L., Wallace, C., & Tyre, A. D. (2016) · Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions · doi:10.1177/1098300716632591 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Teachers’ Psychological Distress: the ameliorating effects of control over the work environment
Tuettemann, E., & Punch, K. F. (1992) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/0013191920440206 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
van den Tooren, M., JONGE, J. D., Vlerick, P., Daniels, K., & de Ven, B. V. (2011) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-011-9148-7 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Lambert, R. G., McCarthy, C. J., Fitchett, P. G., & Eyal, M. (2018) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811812001205 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 85 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Demmin, D. L., Silverstein, S. M., & Shors, T. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.847301 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Teachers are also likely to experience workplace fatigue (Fitchett et al., 2021) and burnout (Haberman, 2005; Bottiani et al.”
BackgroundGhasemi, F. (2025) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23455 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Heikonen, L., Ahtiainen, R., Hotulainen, R., Oinas, S., Rimpelä, A., & Koivuhovi, S. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104399 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Çobanoğlu, F., Yıldırım, Ö., Şarkaya, S. S., & Sertel, G. (2023) · European Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.12973/eujem.6.2.83 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Mosley, K. C., McCarthy, C. J., Lambert, R. G., Fitchett, P. G., & Dillard, J. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22814 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationAdmiraal, W. (2025) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2025.105070 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Bian, H., & Jiang, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1479507 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Özyıldırım, G. (2024) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23202 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Barata‐Gonçalves, M., Carona, C., Pires, L., Gaspar, P. D., de Lima, M. P., & de Oliveira, A. L. (2025) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci14030148 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Öğretmenlerde Mental İyi Oluş ve İş Yaşam Kalitesi
Boyalıoğlu, Ş., & Çobanoğlu, F. (2024) · Batı anadolu eğitim bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.51460/baebd.1442988 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Miller, L. C., White, R. S., Player, D. W., & Reynolds, A. L. (2025) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2025.2533934 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wang, J., Kalkbrenner, M. T., & Schaner, R. (2024) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23317 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Secondary Traumatic Stress Among Teachers: The Impact of Race and Years of Teaching Experiences
Phelps, C., Francois, S., Rice, K. G., Baker, C. N., & Overstreet, S. (2025) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-025-09744-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Jiang, H., & Bian, H. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02756-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Instructors’ Experiences of Burnout During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Codilla, C. J. P. (2025) · Journal of interdisciplinary perspectives · doi:10.69569/jip.2025.130 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vulnerability and trainee teachers: a missing piece of the jigsaw?
Clarke, E., & Thompson, S. (2025) · Pastoral Care in Education · doi:10.1080/02643944.2025.2596085
Dorfer, R., Loparics, J. I. S., Krepper, B., & Seiler, L. (2026) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-026-00563-3
Beginning teacher self-efficacy and resilience across four years in Alberta, Canada
Gunn, T. M., McRae, P. A., & Kellett, P. M. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2026.100606
- Authors
- Fitchett, P. G., McCarthy, C. J., Lambert, R. G., Eyal, M., Playfair, E. C., & Dillard, J. B.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Charlotte (US)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fitchett, Paul Graven
- Venue
- Educational Review
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2019-06-24
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 170-193
- ISSN
- 0013-1911 (ISSN-L)
- 1465-3397
- OpenAlex
- W2955270921
- Cited by
- 18
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 1.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Review (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Spencer Foundation (201500094)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Occupational Health and Burnout
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Professional Development and Motivation
- Keywords
- teacher stress, stress vulnerability, secondary school teachers, occupational fatigue, occupational commitment, classroom control, teacher retention, occupational stress, Schools and Staffing Survey
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review