Cited by 2,112Psychometric Methodologies and TestingMental Health Research TopicsPersonality Traits and Psychology

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The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

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Reise, Steven P.·2012·Multivariate Behavioral Research

DOI 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555PMC PMC3773879

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Abstract

multidimensionality in a set of ordered categorical item responses. I begin by describing the Schmid-Leiman bifactor procedure (Schmid & Leiman, 1957), and highlight its relations with correlated-factors and second-order exploratory factor models. After describing limitations of the Schmid-Leiman, two newer methods of exploratory bifactor modeling are considered, namely, analytic bifactor (Jennrich & Bentler, 2011) and target bifactor rotations (Reise, Moore, & Maydeu-Olivares, 2011). In section two, I discuss limited and full-information estimation approaches to confirmatory bifactor models that have emerged from the item response theory and factor analysis traditions, respectively. Comparison of the confirmatory bifactor model to alternative nested confirmatory models and establishing parameter invariance for the general factor also are discussed. In the final section, important applications of bifactor models are reviewed. These applications demonstrate that bifactor modeling potentially provides a solid foundation for conceptualizing psychological constructs, constructing measures, and evaluating a measure's psychometric properties. However, some applications of the bifactor model may be limited due to its restrictive assumptions.

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Method
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MethodResult
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Method
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Background
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Method
Revisiting the Bi-Factor Model: Can Mixture Modeling Help Assess Its Applicability?
Raykov, T., Marcoulides, G. A., Menold, N., & Harrison, M. (2018) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2018.1436441 · Cited by 15
“This model has attracted growing attention by methodologists and empirical researchers (e.g., Jennrich & Bentler, 2011, 2012; Reise, 2012), in part because it allows the study of complicated behavioral and cognitive processes that are characterized by (a) global variance sources in multicomponent…”
Background
Work engagement and burnout: real, redundant, or both? A further examination using a bifactor modelling approach
Trógolo, M., Morera, L. P., Castellano, E. J., Spontón, C., & Medrano, L. A. (2020) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2020.1801642 · Cited by 15
Improved measurement of tinnitus severity: Study of the dimensionality and reliability of the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory
Gos, E., Sagan, A., Skarzynski, P. H., & Skarżyńśki, H. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237778 · Cited by 15
“Explained Common Variance (ECV) is an indicator of unidimensionality, with high ECV indicating a strong general factor compared to group factors [52].”
Background
Emotion recognition ability and career success: Assessing the roles of GMA and conscientiousness
Kranefeld, I., & Blickle, G. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110370 · Cited by 17
Refining the Openness–Performance Relationship: Construct Specificity, Contextualization, Social Skill, and the Combination of Trait Self- and Other-Ratings
Kholin, M., Meurs, J. A., Blickle, G., Wihler, A., Ewen, C., & Momm, T. D. (2015) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2015.1076430 · Cited by 19
“…covariance among a set of item responses can be accounted for by a single general factor that reflects the common variance running among all scale items, and group factors that reflect additional common variance among clusters of items, typically, with highly similar content” (Reise, 2012, p. 667).”
Background
Evidence for a Bifactor Structure of the Scales of Psychological Well-Being Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling
Espinoza, J. A., Meyer, J. P., Anderson, B. K., Vaters, C., & Politis, C. (2018) · Journal of Well-Being Assessment · doi:10.1007/s41543-018-0008-y · Cited by 19
“For this reason, and because these models often involve unrealistic assumptions (e.g., Morin et al., 2016; Reise, 2012), they are not reported in the Results but are available from the first author upon request. also conducted a series of CFA on the same models estimated using ESEM.”
BackgroundMethodResult
Confirmation and Validation of the Equanimity Scale-16 (ES-16)
Cheever, J., Cayoun, B. A., Elphinstone, B., & Shires, A. G. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02029-9 · Cited by 14
Bifactor model of WISC-IV: Applicability and measurement invariance in low and normal IQ groups.
Gomez, R., Vance, A. L. A., & Watson, S. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000369 · Cited by 14
Structural validity of the Spanish Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition in a large sample of Spanish children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Fenollar-Cortés, J., López-Pinar, C., & Watkins, M. W. (2018) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2018.1474820 · Cited by 16
“Further, it is a mistake to interpret multidimensional scales as if they are unidimensional (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Validation of the Revised Children's Anxiety and Depression Scales (RCADS) and RCADS short forms adapted for adults
McKenzie, K., Murray, A. L., Freeston, M. H., Whelan, K. J., & Rodgers, J. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.10.362 · Cited by 16
The Multidimensional and Hierarchical Nature of the Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Wellbeing: A Bifactor-ESEM Representation in a Spanish Sample
Fadda, D., Aguado, M. P. Q., Cuesta, M. H. B., & Scalas, L. F. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00422 · Cited by 14
“The ESEM solution was specified with oblique target rotation (Asparouhov and Muthén, 2009); for the bifactor-ESEM solution we used a bifactor orthogonal target rotation (Reise, 2012), allowing for the estimation of a G-factor.”
Method
Examining the Factor Structure and Incremental Validity of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale – Short Form in a Community Sample
Clauss, K. E., Witte, T. K., & Bardeen, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2021.1887879 · Cited by 14
Vineland-3 Structural Validity and Interpretability of Domain Scores: Implications for Practitioners Assessing Adolescents With Developmental Conditions
Pandolfi, V., & Magyar, C. I. (2021) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-126.3.216 · Cited by 14
A bifactor model of U.S. parents’ attitudes regarding mediation for the digital age
Navarro, J. L., Fletcher, A. C., & Jensen, M. R. (2022) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2022.2123012 · Cited by 16
“Bifactor models have two components: a general factor that represents shared variance across all the items in the scale and group factors that represent additional shared variance among clusters of items (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Validation of the Musical Identity Measure: Exploring musical identity as a variable across multiple types of musicians
Burland, K., Bennett, D., & López‐Íñiguez, G. (2022) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/10298649221108576 · Cited by 26
“Explained common variance (ECV) refers to the proportion of common variance explained by that factor, and it can refer to the common factor, other group factors, or individual items (I-ECV); the closer the score is to 1.0, the stronger the factor (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Greek Burnout Assessment Tool: Examining Its Adaptation and Validity
Androulakis, G., Georgiou, D. A., Lainidi, O., Montgomery, A., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20105827 · Cited by 14
“Additionally, for the evaluation of bifactor models, the hierarchical omega index was used [49,50].”
Method
The Accuracy of Bayesian Model Fit Indices in Selecting Among Multidimensional Item Response Theory Models
Fujimoto, K. A., & Falk, C. F. (2023) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131644231165520 · Cited by 17
“…dimensionality conditions, on the whole, led to the items to discriminate more strongly on the primary dimensions than on the secondary dimensions, resembling a situation for which nested-dimensionality IRT models are most appropriate (DeMars, 2013; Reise, 2012; Toland et al., 2017).”
Background
Is Good Character All that Counts? A Comparison Between the Predictive Role of Specific Strengths and a General Factor of “Good Character” Using a Bifactor Model
Feraco, T., Casali, N., Meneghetti, C., Greiff, S., & Cona, G. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00686-8 · Cited by 14
“The bifactor model is a perfect fit for this aim (Chen et al., 2012 ; Gignac, 2007 ; Morin et al., 2020 ; Murray & Johnson, 2013 ; Reise, 2012 ; Zhang et al., 2021).”
Method
The structure of the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised: Global distress, Somatization, Hostility, and Phobic Anxiety scales are reliable and robust across community and clinical samples from four European countries
Lignier, B., Petot, J., Canada, B., Nicolas, M., Courtois, R., & Oliveira, P. D. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115635 · Cited by 14
Towards a multidimensional measure of well-being: cross-cultural support through the Italian validation of the well-being profile
Scalas, L. F., Lodi, E., Magnano, P., & Marsh, H. W. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01485-9 · Cited by 19
“However, if the subscales are sufficiently distinct, then reporting a total score is less defensible [28].”
BackgroundMethod
Applying Latent Variable Models to Estimate Cumulative Exposure Burden to Chemical Mixtures and Identify Latent Exposure Subgroups: A Critical Review and Future Directions
Liu, S. H., Chen, Y., Kuiper, J. R., Ho, E., Buckley, J. P., & Feuerstahler, L. M. (2024) · Statistics in Biosciences · doi:10.1007/s12561-023-09410-9 · Cited by 14
“Accordingly, latent variable models for multidimensional [109], bifactor [110] and hierarchical [111] data structures are available.”
Rational thinking as a general cognitive ability: Factorial structure, underlying cognitive processes, and relevance for university academic success
Grimm, J., & Richter, T. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102428 · Cited by 14
Psychometric evaluation of the PCL-5: assessing validity, diagnostic utility, and bifactor structures
Georgescu, T., Nedelcea, C., Gorbănescu, A., Papasteri, C., Cosmoiu, A., Vasile, D. L., & Letzner, R. D. (2024) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2024.2333222 · Cited by 15
“An ω H exceeding 0.80 indicated unidimensionality, and H values over 0.80 indicate well-de ﬁ ned latent variables (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
The DOES Scale: Measuring Sensory Processing Sensitivity as a Trait Constellation
Gubler, D. A., Janelt, T., Roth, M., Schlegel, K., Guggisberg, J., & Troche, S. J. (2024) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2024.2405536 · Cited by 19
“However, this assumption could never be formally tested due to the statistical equivalence (i.e., same degrees of freedom and model fit) between second-order models with three lower-order factors and models with correlated factors of the same number (Gignac & Kretzschmar, 2017; Reise, 2012).”
Culture and the Structure of Affect: A Bifactor Modeling Approach
Chen, F., Bai, L., Lee, J. M., & Jing, Y. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9671-3 · Cited by 14
Investigating the factor structure and validity of the family empowerment scale for parents of children with emotional disturbance in middle school
Huscroft-D’Angelo, J. N., Hurley, K. D., Lambert, M. C., & Trout, A. L. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.013 · Cited by 14
Rethinking Mathematics Misconceptions: Using Knowledge Structures to Explain Systematic Errors within and across Content Domains
Rakes, C. R., & Ronau, R. N. (2019) · Maryland Shared Open Access Repository (USMAI Consortium) · doi:10.13016/m2nb41-xjtl · Cited by 14
“This modeling approach has been found to be highly useful for examining an existing instrument and deepening understanding of trait structure (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Assessment of the Enterprising Personality: A Short Form of The BEPE Battery
Postigo, Á., Garcı́a-Cueto, E., Cuesta, M., Menéndez-Aller, Á., Prieto-Díez, F., & Fernández, L. M. L. (2020) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2020.193 · Cited by 14
Psychometric properties of the Engaged Teachers Scale (ETS)
Júnior, D. I. S., Ferreira, M. C., & Valentini, F. (2020) · Psicologia - Teoria e Prática · doi:10.5935/1980-6906/psicologia.v22n1p109-126 · Cited by 16
Validation of the Cooperative Learning Scale and Cooperation Global Factor Using Bifactor Structural Equation Modelling
Fernández‐Río, J., Estrada, J. A. C., Morgan, K., Mendez‐Giménez, A., & Lloyd, R. (2021) · Psicologí a Educativa · doi:10.5093/psed2021a2 · Cited by 14
“However, these models are based on highly restrictive implicit assumptions that cannot be valid in practice and can explain why minimal proper fit requirements are not met at times (Reise, 2012).”
Background
The validation of a Farsi version of the Loss of Control over Eating Scale (F-LOCES) among Iranian adolescent boys and girls.
Sahlan, R. N., Saunders, J. F., Perez, M., Blomquist, K., Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., & Bodell, L. P. (2021) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101502 · Cited by 15
Contribución de los Modelos Factoriales Confirmatorios a la Evaluación de Estructura Interna desde la Perspectiva de la Validez
Ondé, D., & Alvarado, J. M. (2022) · Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación - e Avaliação Psicológica · doi:10.21865/ridep66.5.01 · Cited by 14
Exploring the aggregation of four functional measures in a population of older adults with joint pain and comorbidity
Hermsen, L. A. H., Leone, S. S., Smalbrugge, M., Knol, D. L., van der Horst, H. E., & Dekker, J. (2013) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/1471-2318-13-119 · Cited by 14
“The ECV is the ratio of the explained variance by the general factor divided by the variance explained by both the general and the subgroup factors, in which a higher ECV indicates unidimensionality [24].”
Background
Development and Validation of the Body Concealment Scale for Scleroderma
Jewett, L. R., Malcarne, V. L., Kwakkenbos, L., Harcourt, D. M., Rumsey, N., Körner, A., Steele, R. J., Hudson, M., Baron, M. G., Haythornthwaite, J. A., et al. (2015) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.22819 · Cited by 14
“Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted with Mplus 7 (35) in the validation sample, and 3 alternative models of the factor structure were tested: a single-factor model, a 2-factor model (consistent with expected concealment strategies related to Concealment of Hands and Concealment with Clothing), and a bifac…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Higher-order models with reflective indicators
Temme, D., & Diamantopoulos, A. (2016) · Journal of Modelling in Management · doi:10.1108/jm2-05-2014-0037 · Cited by 14
Evaluating the Factor Validity of the Children’s Organizational Skills Scale in Youth with ADHD
Molitor, S. J., Langberg, J. M., Evans, S. W., Dvorsky, M. R., Bourchtein, E., Eddy, L. D., Smith, Z. R., & Oddo, L. E. (2016) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-016-9205-0 · Cited by 16
“…bi-factor model—captures variance in responses to a particular item on a measure that may be accounted for by a broad construct (i.e., a domaingeneral construct) as well as a narrower construct (i.e., a domain-specific construct) (for a review of bi-factor measurement modeling, see Reise, 2012).”
Influential
Assessing Music Perception in Young Children: Evidence for and Psychometric Features of the M-Factor
Barros, C. G., Swardfager, W., Moreno, S., Bortz, G., Ilari, B. S., Jackowski, A. P., Ploubidis, G. B., Little, T. D., Lamont, A. M., & Cogo‐Moreira, H. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00018 · Cited by 14
The Dimensions of Ruminative Thinking: One for All or All for One
Mihić, L., Novović, Z., Lazić, M., Dozois, D. J. A., & Belopavlović, R. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191117694747 · Cited by 14
“…way to answer the question regarding the dimensionality of an instrument, particularly when the instrument contains item clusters tapping diverse manifestations of a phenomenon, is to rely on bifactor modeling (Reise, 2012; Reise, Bonifay, & Haviland, 2018; Reise, Moore, & Haviland, 2010).”
BackgroundMethod
Latent structure of negative valence measures in childhood
Lee, M., Aggen, S. H., Carney, D. M., Hahn, S., Moroney, E., Machlin, L., Brotman, M. A., Towbin, K. E., Leibenluft, E., Pine, D. S., et al. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22656 · Cited by 14
“The bifactor model represents a different conceptual structure to account for the patterning of their associations (Reise, 2012).”
Measuring fluid intelligence at age four
Gustafsson, J., & Wolff, U. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.008 · Cited by 14
“They used a bifactor model (e.g., Reise, 2012) to analyze the data, which allowed simultaneous identification of a domain-general Gf factor and the three content domain factors.”
Method
Exploring the factor structure of the Health of the Nation Outcomes Scale (HoNOS) in a sample of patients with schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders
Smith, W., Vitoratou, S., McCrone, P., & Patel, A. K. (2017) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-017-0701-1 · Cited by 14
“Typically, each item can load on the general factor and only one specific factor [30] and each specific factor consists of three or more items which form independent clusters [28].”
Testing the generality of the general factor of personality: An exploratory bifactor approach
Arias, V. B., Río, C. J., & Ponce, F. P. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.042 · Cited by 14
Aligning Predictor-Criterion Bandwidths: Specific Abilities as Predictors of Specific Performance
Wee, S. (2018) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence6030040 · Cited by 15
Reporting Valid and Reliable Overall Scores and Domain Scores Using Bi-Factor Model
Liu, Y., Li, Z., & Liu, H. (2018) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0146621618813093 · Cited by 14
“It is computed as the proportion of total score variance that can be attributed to all factors (Reise, 2012; Reise, Bonifay, & Haviland, 2013).”
Background
Integration of the ICD-11 and DSM-5 Dimensional Systems for Personality Disorders Into a Unified Taxonomy With Non-overlapping Traits
Gutiérrez, F., Peri, J. M., Gárriz, M., Vall, G., Arqué, E., Ruiz, L., Condomines, J., Calvo, N., Ferrer, M., & Sureda, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.591934 · Cited by 17
“A suitable approach to examine this issue is bifactor analysis (18).”
Background

Authors: Reise, S. P.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: Reise, Steven P.
ORCID: Reise, Steven P.
Venue: Multivariate Behavioral Research
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 47
Issue: 5
Pages: 667-696
ISSN: 0027-3171 (ISSN-L)
1532-7906
DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
PMC: PMC3773879
OpenAlex: W2025929695
Cited by: 2,112
References: 70
Citations by year: 2026: 203 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 134 · 2023: 174 · 2022: 165 · 2021: 200 · 2020: 222 · 2019: 181 · 2018: 203 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 139 · 2015: 98 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 4
FWCI: 85.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Multivariate Behavioral Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute on Drug Abuse (RL1DA024853)
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (U01AR052177)
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (UL1DE019580)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: bifactor model, multidimensionality, general factor, parameter invariance, nested models, construct measurement, psychometric properties

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The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

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