Cited by 2,112Psychometric Methodologies and TestingMental Health Research TopicsPersonality Traits and Psychology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

Open access

Reise, Steven P.·2012·Multivariate Behavioral Research

DOI 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555PMC PMC3773879

Open this paper in CoChat — free account Open PDF

Abstract

multidimensionality in a set of ordered categorical item responses. I begin by describing the Schmid-Leiman bifactor procedure (Schmid & Leiman, 1957), and highlight its relations with correlated-factors and second-order exploratory factor models. After describing limitations of the Schmid-Leiman, two newer methods of exploratory bifactor modeling are considered, namely, analytic bifactor (Jennrich & Bentler, 2011) and target bifactor rotations (Reise, Moore, & Maydeu-Olivares, 2011). In section two, I discuss limited and full-information estimation approaches to confirmatory bifactor models that have emerged from the item response theory and factor analysis traditions, respectively. Comparison of the confirmatory bifactor model to alternative nested confirmatory models and establishing parameter invariance for the general factor also are discussed. In the final section, important applications of bifactor models are reviewed. These applications demonstrate that bifactor modeling potentially provides a solid foundation for conceptualizing psychological constructs, constructing measures, and evaluating a measure's psychometric properties. However, some applications of the bifactor model may be limited due to its restrictive assumptions.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555

Cites

69 of 69 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
R Core Team (2000) · doi:10.32614/r.manuals · Cited by 355,893
EQS : structural equations program manual
Bentler, P. M. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 9,669
Test Theory: A Unified Treatment
Zwick, R., & McDonald, R. P. (2000) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2669496 · Cited by 3,641 · cited 1×
“Thus, to judge the degree to which composite scale scores are interpretable as a measure of a single common factor, we need a related index called coefficient omega hierarchical (McDonald, 1999; Zinbarg, Revelle, Yovel, & Li, 2005).”
Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective.
Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.305 · Cited by 3,618 · cited 1×
“In other words, if the data are truly unidimensional and a unidimensional latent variable measurement model is proposed to fit the data, content representativeness does not make any difference in defining the latent variable or in the value of the estimated item parameters (Bollen & Lennox, 1991).”
Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510903008204 · Cited by 2,701
Untitled work
(1999) · Cited by 2,653
Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994) · Cited by 2,388
Marginal Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Item Parameters: Application of an EM Algorithm
Bock, R. D., & Aitkin, M. (1981) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02293801 · Cited by 2,339 · cited 1×
“Specifically, many applications of IRT are based on the marginal maximum likelihood (MML; Bock & Aitken, 1981) estimation method.”
Cronbach’s α , Revelle’s β , and Mcdonald’s ω H : their Relations with Each Other and Two Alternative Conceptualizations of Reliability
Zinbarg, R. E., Revelle, W., Yovel, I., & Li, W. (2005) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-003-0974-7 · Cited by 1,439
Bifactor Models and Rotations: Exploring the Extent to Which Multidimensional Data Yield Univocal Scale Scores
Reise, S. P., Moore, T. M., & Haviland, M. G. (2010) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.496477 · Cited by 1,196 · cited 4×
“…resolving important problems in conceptualizing and measuring psychological constructs (Brunner, Nagy, & Wilhelm, 2012; Cai, Yang, & Hansen, 2011; Chen, Hayes, Carver, Laurenceau, & Zhang, 2012; Gustafsson & Aberg-Bengtsson, 2010; Reise et al., 2010; Reise, Morizot, & Hays, 2007; Thomas, 2012); 3.”
InfluentialSelf-citation

Show all 70 references

Research works printed but not linked: 13

Bock R. D., 2003, TESTFACT 4.0 [Computer software and manual]
Browne M. W., 2008, CEFA: Comprehensive Exploratory Factor Analysis (Version 3.02) [Computer software and manual]
Cai L., 2011, IRTPRO: Flexible, multidimensional, multiple categorical IRT modeling.
Cai L., 2011, IRTPRO: Flexible, multidimensional, multiple categorical IRT modeling [Computer software]
Chen W. H., 1997, Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 22, 265, 10.2307/1165285 · DOI
Gibbons R. D., 2008, Psychiatric Services, 59, 361, 10.1176/appi.ps.59.4.361 · DOI
Jennrich R. I., 2012, Psychometrika.
Jeon M., Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics.
Muthén L. K., 2011, Mplus user's guide,
Revelle W., 2012, Psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research. R package version 1.1–10
Satorra A., 1994, Latent variable analysis: Applications for development research, 399
Wu E. J. C., 2011, EQSIRT: A user-friendly IRT program.
Zhang J., 1999, Psychometrika, 64, 231

Sorted by citations

Items 401–500 of 1,002

Modeling General, Specific, and Method Variance in Personality Measures: Results for ZKA-PQ and NEO-PI-R
Abad, F. J., Sorrel, M. Á., Garcı́a, L. F., & Aluja, A. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116667547 · Cited by 39
“The oblique model is not nested in the standard bifactor model where an orthogonally constraint for the specific factors is set (Reise, 2012).”
Method
Bifactor Models in Psychometric Test Development
Chen, F.-F., & Zhang, Z.-G. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781118489772.ch12 · Cited by 38
Loneliness and schizotypy are distinct constructs, separate from general psychopathology
Badcock, J. C., Barkus, E., Cohen, A. S., Bucks, R., & Badcock, D. R. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01018 · Cited by 38
“Confirmatory bi-factor models are one set of models gaining traction as a technique for accounting for this multidimensionality (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
The English are healthier than the Americans: really?
Cieza, A., Oberhauser, C., Bickenbach, J., Jones, R. N., Üstün, T. B., Kostanjsek, N. F. I., Morris, J. N., & Chatterji, S. (2014) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyu182 · Cited by 41
“Bifactor analysis assumes the presence of a single general factor and multiple independent group factors.(17,18) Bifactor analyses supported the assumption of a strong general factor, but the questions and measured tests from the domains cognition, emotion, sleep, vision and hearing loaded higher in their respective g…”
Background
Measuring fatigue in haemodialysis patients: The factor structure of the Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire (CFQ)
Picariello, F., Moss-Morris, R. E., Macdougall, I. C., & Chilcot, J. (2016) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.03.124 · Cited by 38
“Reliability of the total and subscale scores was assessed using the omega index, along with an indicator of the saturation of a multidimensional scale by a general factor, omega-hierarchical, for the bifactor models [31,32].”
Method
Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism
Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 · Cited by 37
“…(Frost et al., 1990), adverse reactions to failure such as rumination over mistakes (Hill et al., 2004), seeking validation from others and being sensitive to criticism (need for approval, Hill et al., 2004), and perceived parental expectations and pressure (Frost et al., 1990; Hill et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethod
Testing the interrelationship between mental well-being and mental distress in young people
Hides, L. M., Quinn, C. A., Stoyanov, S. R., Cockshaw, W. D., Kavanagh, D. J., Shochet, I. M., Deane, F. P., Kelly, P. J., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1610478 · Cited by 43
“The ECV was large (>.60; Reise, 2012); however, the percentage of uncontaminated correlations was lower than the >.70 cut-off (.60) recommended and the average relative bias was 12% when comparing the general factor loadings to those from a unidimensional construct, which is on the cusp of an…”
Background
Development and Initial Validation of a Scale Assessing Suicide-Specific Rumination: The Suicide Rumination Scale
Rogers, M. L., Law, K. C., Houtsma, C., Tucker, R. P., Anestis, M. D., & Joiner, T. E. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211033897 · Cited by 40
“…et al. 1781 were computed in MPlus using the bifactor model with standardized loadings, including omega reliability coefficients (McDonald, 1999; Reise, 2012; Zinbarg et al., 2005), percentage of reliable variance (Rodriguez et al., 2016), factor determinacy (Grice, 2001), construct…”
Method
A preliminary psychometric analysis of the difficulties with emotion regulation scale (DERS) among autistic adolescents and adults: factor structure, reliability, and validity
McVey, A. J., Schiltz, H. K., Coffman, M., Antezana, L., & Magnus, B. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05018-4 · Cited by 37
“It is important to note that the “modified” bifactor models are not true bifactor models, given that the specific factors are uncorrelated in a bifactor model (Reise, 2012).”
Background
The effects of survey mode on self-reported psychological functioning: Measurement invariance and latent mean comparison across face-to-face and web modes
Kocjan, G. Z., Lavtar, D., & Sočan, G. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-01867-8 · Cited by 42
“While ωh reflects the proportion of total item variance explained by the general factor, ωs reflects the unique proportion of total item variance accounted for by each group factor controlling for the contribution of the general factor (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Factor structure and measurement invariance of the 8-item CES-D: a national longitudinal sample of Chinese adolescents
Liu, S., Fang, Y., Su, Z., Cai, J., & Chen, Z. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05316-4 · Cited by 42
Do the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and Autism Spectrum Quotient Short Form (AQ-S) Primarily Reflect General ASD Traits or Specific ASD Traits? A Bi-Factor Analysis
Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., Kuenssberg, R., & Booth, T. (2015) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191115611230 · Cited by 37
“As an index of the extent to which the items reflected a general versus specific factors, we computed the explained common variance (ECV) statistic (see Reise, 2012).”
Investigating the Structure of the WJ-III Cognitive in Early School Age Through Two Exploratory Bifactor Analysis Procedures
Dombrowski, S. C. (2014) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282914530838 · Cited by 37
“, 1999) that could produce a biased estimate of corresponding population values (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Construct validity evidence for the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form: A structural equation modeling approach using the bifactor model.
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., Weigold, I. K., & McCurdy, E. R. (2016) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000171 · Cited by 37
“That is, in the bifactor model, specific factors explain observed relationships among sets of items over and above the explanation that is provided by the general construct (Reise, 2012).”
Background
The psychometric properties of an Arabic version of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) across three Arabic-speaking Middle Eastern countries
Al-Attiyah, A. A., Megreya, A. M., Alrashidi, M., Domínguez-Lara, S., & Al-Sheerawi, A. A. (2017) · International Journal of Culture and Mental Health · doi:10.1080/17542863.2017.1290125 · Cited by 37
“In the next step, a bifactor analysis (Reise, 2012) using the five-factor model of the original PID-5 (Krueger et al., 2012) was carried out.”
Method
Greater than the sum of its parts: Development of a measure of collectivism among Asians.
Lui, P. P., & Rollock, D. (2017) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000163 · Cited by 37
“…a correlated three-factor structure also was nested within a bifactor model with three specific factors (i.e., loadings on the GF constrained to be zero to convert a bifactor model to a correlated factor model), a nonsignificant 2 would indicate that the bifactor model was acceptable (Reise, 2012).”
Background
The Intolerance of Uncertainty Inventory: Validity and Comparison of Scoring Methods to Assess Individuals Screening Positive for Anxiety and Depression
Lauriola, M., Mosca, O., Trentini, C., Foschi, R., Tambelli, R., & Carleton, R. N. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00388 · Cited by 45
“The omega (ω) and omega scale (ωs) coefficients can also be compared to assess the viability of subscale scores with group-factor items (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Helping, Sharing, and Comforting in Young Children: Links to Individual Differences in Attachment
Beier, J. S., Gross, J. T., Brett, B. E., Stern, J. A., Martin, D. R., & Cassidy, J. A. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13100 · Cited by 40
“…permits individual task scores to load on both the general factor and their associated specific factor, while keeping the general factor uncorrelated with the specific factors and the specific factors uncorrelated with each other (Chen, Hayes, Carver, Laurenceau, & Zhang, 2012; Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Revisiting the disabilities of the arm, shoulder and hand (DASH) and QuickDASH in rheumatoid arthritis
Prodinger, B., Hammond, A., Tennant, A., Prior, Y., & Tyson, S. F. (2019) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-019-2414-6 · Cited by 37
State Anhedonia in Young Healthy Adults: Psychometric Properties of the German Dimensional Anhedonia Rating Scale (DARS) and Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Wellan, S. A., Daniels, A., & Walter, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.682824 · Cited by 35
“In order to further analyze the multidimensionality of the DARS, we additionally computed an orthogonal bifactor model with one general hedonic capacity factor and four domain group factors (Reise, 2012).”
Method
Some thoughts on analytical choices in the scaling model for test scores in international large-scale assessment studies
Robitzsch, A., & Lüdtke, O. (2022) · Measurement Instruments for the Social Sciences · doi:10.1186/s42409-022-00039-w · Cited by 36
“A bifactor model with a general factor and specific dimensions might also be attractive for applied researchers (Reise, 2012).”
Background
The Metacognitions Questionnaire–30: An Examination of a Bifactor Model and Measurement Invariance Among Men and Women in a Community Sample
Fergus, T. A., & Bardeen, J. R. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116685807 · Cited by 39
Friendship Network Satisfaction: A multifaceted construct scored as a unidimensional scale
Kaufman, V. A., Perez, J. C., Reise, S. P., Bradbury, T. N., & Karney, B. R. (2021) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075211025639 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
Chronic pain conditions and risk of suicidal behavior: a 10-year longitudinal co-twin control study
Chen, C., Pettersson, E., Summit, A. G., Boersma, K., Chang, Z., Kuja‐Halkola, R., Lichtenstein, P., & Quinn, P. D. (2023) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02703-8 · Cited by 36
“In the present study, we addressed this by explicitly modeling overlapping pain conditions via a general factor model, which allows for decomposing their overlap into one general and several specific components [40].”
Method
Dependence structure, relational mechanisms and performance: teasing out the differences between upstream and downstream supply chain partners
Pu, X., Cai, Z., Chong, A. Y., & Paulraj, A. (2023) · International Journal of Operations & Production Management · doi:10.1108/ijopm-04-2022-0235 · Cited by 39
Evaluating the Structure of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Using Confirmatory Factor Analytic and Bifactor Modeling With Parent and Youth Ratings
Smith, Z. R., Becker, S. P., Garner, A. A., Rudolph, C. W., Molitor, S. J., Oddo, L. E., & Langberg, J. M. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116653471 · Cited by 39
“In the bifactor model, all factors (general and specific) were specified to be orthogonal to one another (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Structural Validity of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales-21 Adapted for U.S. Undergraduates
Kia‐Keating, M., No, U., Moore, S. A., Furlong, M. J., Liu, S., & You, S. (2017) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696817745407 · Cited by 43
Quantifying Dispositional Fear as Threat Sensitivity: Development and Initial Validation of a Model-Based Scale Measure
Kramer, M. D., Patrick, C. J., Hettema, J. M., Moore, A. A., Sawyers, C. K., & Yancey, J. R. (2019) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191119837613 · Cited by 36
“The 50 anchor scale items were determined to be adequately unidimensional in structure as evidenced by comparable loadings on the general factor of an exploratory bifactor model relative to the sole factor of a onefactor confirmatory model (cf. Reise, 2012).”
Assessing Measurement Invariance for Applied Research
Wells, C. S. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108750561 · Cited by 38
Loneliness in Gender-Diverse and Sexual Orientation–Diverse Adolescents: Measurement Invariance Analyses and Between-Group Comparisons
McDanal, R., Schleider, J. L., Fox, K. R., & Eaton, N. R. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211065167 · Cited by 42
“While there does not appear to be a specific consensus for omega benchmarks, Reise (2012) suggests that omega values should meet the same standards as are expected of alpha values.”
Background
Can Optimism, Pessimism, Hope, Treatment Credibility and Treatment Expectancy Be Distinguished in Patients Undergoing Total Hip and Total Knee Arthroplasty?
Haanstra, T. M., Tilbury, C., Kamper, S. J., Tordoir, R., Vlieland, T. P. M. V., Nelissen, R. G. H. H., Cuijpers, P. J., de Vet, H. C. W., Dekker, J., Knol, D. L., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133730 · Cited by 36
“For each of the 5 separate factors we calculated the proportion of variance unique from the general factor (ωNk) (for example see [39,40]).”
Background
Generalized Dispositional Distrust as the Common Core of Populism and Conspiracy Mentality
Thielmann, I., & Hilbig, B. E. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12886 · Cited by 37
Factors of psychological distress: clinical value, measurement substance, and methodological artefacts
Boehnke, J. R., & Croudace, T. J. (2015) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1022-5 · Cited by 36
“While the interpretation of factor solutions has always been a challenging issue, the ‘‘rediscovery’’ of hierarchical and bifactor model variants [55] leads to the interpretative challenge of general factors of psychopathology.”
Background
Testing for measurement invariance and latent mean differences across methods: interesting incremental information from multitrait-multimethod studies
Geiser, C., Burns, G. L., & Servera, M. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01216 · Cited by 35
“As can be seen in Figure 4, for one trait and two methods, we obtain measurement models that have the same structure as longitudinal latent state-trait models (e.g., Geiser et al., 2013) for multiple indicators and that are similar to so-called bifactor models (e.g., Reise, 2012).”
Method
Curvilinear dependency of response accuracy on response time in cognitive tests
Chen, H., de Boeck, P. A. L., Grady, M., Yang, C., & Waldschmidt, D. M. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.04.001 · Cited by 38
A 3-Faced Construct Validation and a Bifactor Subjective Well-Being Model Using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience, Greek Version
Kyriazos, T. A., Stalikas, A., Prassa, K., & Yotsidi, V. (2018) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2018.95071 · Cited by 36
“However, Bifactor results has been criticized at certain conditions as questionable (Reise, 2012; Joshanloo et al., 2017).”
Background
Burnout: Re-examining its key constructs
Tavella, G., Hadži-Pavlović, D., & Parker, G. B. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112917 · Cited by 37
A latent profile analysis of adverse childhood experiences and adult health in a community sample
Dobson, K. S., McLarnon, M. J. W., Pandya, K., & Pusch, D. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104927 · Cited by 37
Early Literacy Skills and Later Reading and Writing Performance Across Countries: The Effects of Orthographic Consistency and Preschool Curriculum
Majorano, M., Bastianello, T., Hațegan, C. B., Fantuzzi, P., Fontana, G., Hoste, E., Lombardi, M., Standaert, A., Talaș, D. A., TRIFU, R. N., et al. (2021) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-021-09611-7 · Cited by 35
“The internal consistency of the tool can be considered sufficiently good in all countries (coefficients should be at least between 0.50 and 0.75; Reise, 2012; Reise et al., 2013).”
MethodInfluential
Support for the general and specific bifactor model factors of anxiety sensitivity
Allan, N. P., Albanese, B. J., Short, N. A., Raines, A. M., & Schmidt, N. B. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.003 · Cited by 35
“Bifactor models suggest the presence of a single general factor reflecting the common variance among all manifest variables (i.e., items), as well as orthogonal factors reflecting the variance among clusters of items (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Structural Validity of the Dutch Version of the Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE-NL) in Patients With Hand and Wrist Injuries
Moumni, M. E., Eck, M. E. V., Wendt, K. W., Reininga, I. H. F., & Mokkink, L. B. (2016) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.2522/ptj.20140589 · Cited by 35
Reliability from alpha to omega: a tutorialPreprint
Revelle, W., & Condon, D. M. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2y3w9 · Cited by 33
Validity of the WISC-V in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance
Stephenson, K. G., Beck, J. S., South, M., Norris, M., & Butter, E. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2020.1846543 · Cited by 35
“Reliability measures were calculated using the semTools package (Jorgensen et al., 2019) in R and included coefficients ωh, and ωhs (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Effect of retention in elementary grades on grade 9 motivation for educational attainment
Cham, H., Hughes, J. N., West, S. G., & Im, M. H. (2014) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.10.001 · Cited by 41
“…ω; 1.00 defines perfect reliability; McDonald, 1999) of the General factor (ω = .92), Teacher Educational Expectation specific factor (ω = .80), Peer Aspirations specific factor (ω = .86), and Value of Education specific factor (ω = .85) in grade 9 were all satisfactory (see Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Resolving Dimensionality Problems With WHOQOL-BREF Item Responses
Perera, H. N., Izadikhah, Z., O'Connor, P. J., & McIlveen, P. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116678925 · Cited by 34
“…of HO models (i.e., proportionality constraints), which render them less realistic measurement structures under common modeling scenarios (Reise, 2012), we rejected the HO-ESEM model as the solution contained a small and nonsignificant second-order loading of the social dimension on…”
Method
Woodcock-Johnson-III, Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT), Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC), and Differential Ability Scales (DAS) support Carroll but not Cattell-Horn.
Cucina, J. M., & Howardson, G. N. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000389 · Cited by 34
An alternative conceptualization of the theoretical structure of the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities at school age: A confirmatory factor analytic investigation.
Dombrowski, S. C., McGill, R. J., & Canivez, G. L. (2018) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000039 · Cited by 34
“Omega-hierarchical subscale is the model based reliability estimate of a group factor with all other group factors and general factor removed (Brunner, Nagy, & Wilhelm, 2012; Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Loving the love of boys: Motives for consuming yaoi media
Zsila, Á., Pagliassotti, D., Urbán, R., Orosz, G., Király, O., & Demetrovics, Z. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198895 · Cited by 34
Factor Structure and Incremental Validity of the Original and Modified Versions of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale
Benfer, N., Bardeen, J. R., Fergus, T. A., & Rogers, T. A. (2018) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2018.1492927 · Cited by 33
“As such, bifactor modeling can be used to determine whether a total score is sufficient to operationalize the construct assessed by a given measure (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Factor Analysis of Negative Symptom Items in the Structured Interview for Prodromal Syndromes
Azis, M., Strauss, G. P., Walker, E. F., Revelle, W., Zinbarg, R. E., & Mittal, V. A. (2018) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sby177 · Cited by 34
On the conflation of purpose and meaning in life: A qualitative study of high school and college student conceptions
Ratner, K., Burrow, A. L., Burd, K. A., & Hill, P. L. (2019) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2019.1659140 · Cited by 40
“Bifactor analysis (Reise, 2012), for example, is a relatively easy-to-use structural equation modeling technique that can parse out the influences of two or more conceptually similar constructs.”
Method
Domain Specificity or Generality: Assessing the Chinese Implicit Theories Scale of Six Fundamental Psychological Attributes
Zhu, S., Zhuang, Y., & Cheung, S. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00142 · Cited by 40
“The relative contributions from general and domain-specific components to items measuring implicit theories can be examined in factor analysis using bifactor models – an approach that has recently re-emerged (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Measuring Spatial Perspective Taking: Analysis of Four Measures Using Item Response Theory
Brucato, M., Frick, A., Pichelmann, S., Nazareth, A., & Newcombe, N. S. (2022) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12597 · Cited by 34
A Bifactor Model of School Engagement
Stefánsson, K. K., Gestsdóttir, S., Geldhof, G. J., Skúlason, S., & Lerner, R. M. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025415604056 · Cited by 37
“Coefficient ! is analogous to coefficient a (Reise, 2012); therefore reliability estimates above the .70 level were interpreted as indicators of adequate reliability (Kline, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
A test of work motivation profile similarity across four distinct samples of employees
Gillet, N., Morin, A. J. S., Ndiaye, A., Colombat, P., & Fouquereau, E. (2020) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12322 · Cited by 34
“This multidimensional operationalization of motivation is typically achieved via the estimation of bifactor Exploratory Structural Equation Models (bifactor-ESEM) measurement models (e.g., Morin, Arens, & Marsh, 2016; Reise, 2012).”
Method
Bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling: A meta-analytic review of model fit
Gegenfurtner, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1037111 · Cited by 43
“One-factor χ2 488.153 df 135 CFI 0.831 TLI 0.810 RMSEA 0.089 SRMR 0.063 CFA χ2 291.702 df 129 CFI 0.922 TLI 0.908 RMSEA 0.062 SRMR 0.049 ESEM χ2 155.324 df 87 CFI 0.967 TLI 0.943 RMSEA 0.049 SRMR 0.028 H-CFA χ2 302.934 df 130 CFI 0.917 TLI 0.903 RMSEA 0.063 SRMR 0.050 H-ESEM χ2 153.571 df 88 CFI 0.969 TLI 0.945 RMSEA…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Exploring the structure and psychometric properties of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS) in a representative adult population sample
Sarasjärvi, K. K., Elovainio, M. J., Appelqvist‐Schmidlechner, K., Solin, P., Tamminen, N., & Therman, S. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115465 · Cited by 33
“Internal consistency and convergent validity McDonald’s omega is reported to quantify the internal consistency (reliability; Reise, 2012).”
Modeling the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding: Evidence in Favor of a Revised Model of Socially Desirable Responding
Gignac, G. E. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.816717 · Cited by 32
“A bifactor model might be considered attractive in this case, as it has been shown to be associated with improvements in model fit in a number of investigations (Gignac, 2006, 2007a; Reise, 2012), and includes a general latent variable with direct paths onto the observed variables.”
Method
Toward an Empirical Multidimensional Structure of Anhedonia, Reward Sensitivity, and Positive Emotionality: An Exploratory Factor Analytic Study
Olino, T. M., McMakin, D. L., & Forbes, E. E. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116680291 · Cited by 36
“This is termed a bifactor or hierarchical model (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Working memory capacity mediates the relationship between removal and fluid intelligence
Singh, K. A., Gignac, G. E., Brydges, C. R., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2018) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.03.002 · Cited by 37
Determining the structure of smartphone addiction scale: A bifactor model analysis
Vintilă, M., Tudorel, O. I., Goian, C., & Bărbat, C. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-0035-0 · Cited by 43
Does Cooperation in the Laboratory Reflect the Operation of A Broad Trait?
McAuliffe, W. H. B., Forster, D. E., Pedersen, E. J., & McCullough, M. E. (2018) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2180 · Cited by 36
I Believe in You! Measuring the experience of encouragement using the academic encouragement scale
Wong, Y. J., Cheng, H., McDermott, R. C., Deng, K., & McCullough, K. M. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1579357 · Cited by 33
“Another alternative model is a bifactor model in which items load on both a general factor and on specific group factors (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Evidence for essential unidimensionality of AUDIT and measurement invariance across gender, age and education. Results from the WIRUS study
Skogen, J. C., Thørrisen, M. M., Olsen, E., Hesse, M., & Aas, R. W. (2019) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.06.002 · Cited by 33
“Additionally, we aimed to test whether there was support for a bi-factor structure, allowing for one general factor and specific factors if we found support for more than one factor in the preceding factor analyses (Chen and Zhang, 2018; Reise, 2012).”
Result
Severe poverty and growth in behavioral self-regulation: The mediating role of parenting
Yu, D. L., Caughy, M. O., Smith, E. P., Oshri, A., & Owen, M. T. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101135 · Cited by 37
“A bi-factor model is an example of a complex factor structure, in which all items load on a general factor, and a subset of items also load on one or more specific factors (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Refining the assessment of need supportive and need thwarting interpersonal behaviors using the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling framework
Tóth‐Király, I., Morin, A. J. S., Gillet, N., Bőthe, B., Nadon, L., Rigó, A., & Orosz, G. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00828-8 · Cited by 36
“However, the greater flexibility of bifactor models, which rely on the estimation of direct relations between the latent factors and item ratings, has led to recent recommendations of their superiority (Morin et al. 2016a; Reise 2012).”
Validation of the difficulties with emotion regulation scale in a sample of trauma‐exposed Black women
Mekawi, Y., Watson‐Singleton, N. N., Dixon, H. D., Fani, N., Michopoulos, V., & Powers, A. D. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23036 · Cited by 37
Psychometric properties of the Dutch-Flemish PROMIS® pediatric item banks Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in a general population
Klaufus, L. H., Luijten, M. A. J., Verlinden, E., van der Wal, M. F., Haverman, L., Cuijpers, P. J., Chinapaw, M. J. M., & Terwee, C. B. (2021) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-021-02852-y · Cited by 36
The contribution Openness to Experience and its two aspects to the explanation of idea generation, evaluation and selection: A metacognitive perspective
Puente‐Díaz, R., Cavazos‐Arroyo, J., Puerta‐Sierra, L., & Vargas-Barrera, F. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111240 · Cited by 33
A comprehensive analysis of the factor structure of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a sample of outpatients with adjustment disorder and depressive episode
McElroy, E., Casey, P., Adamson, G., Filippopoulos, P. C., & Shevlin, M. E. (2017) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2017.52 · Cited by 36
Differential associations between patterns of child maltreatment and comorbidity in adult depressed patients
Brodbeck, J., Faßbinder, E., Schweiger, U., Fehr, A., Späth, C., & Klein, J. P. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.077 · Cited by 33
Construct validity of the Spanish Version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fifth Edition (WISC-VSpain)
Fenollar-Cortés, J., & Watkins, M. W. (2018) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2017.1414006 · Cited by 34
“tor models (see bottom panel of Figure 2) conceptualize g as a breadth factor having direct effects on the measured variables (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Educational Psychology
Ben‐Eliyahu, A., & Zeidner, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.041 · Cited by 33
Flourish Index and Secure Flourish Index Development and ValidationPreprint
Węziak‐Białowolska, D., McNeely, E., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3145336 · Cited by 33
Validation of the short Clance impostor phenomenon scale (CIPS-10)
Wang, B., Andrews, W., Bechtoldt, M. N., Rohrmann, S., & de Vries, R. E. (2024) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000747 · Cited by 28
Belief in a Just What? Demystifying Just World Beliefs by Distinguishing Sources of Justice
Stroebe, K. E., Postmes, T., Täuber, S., Stegeman, A., & John, M. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120145 · Cited by 33
“We estimated a bifactor model in order to assess the dimensional structure of BJT5 [63, 64].”
Replication and External Validation of a Bi-Factor Parameterization of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Symptomatology
Willoughby, M. T., Blanton, Z. E., & Family Life Project Investigators (2013) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850702 · Cited by 34
“Although bi-factor models are not new (Holzinger & Swineford, 1937), their use in the social, clinical, and health sciences is (Reise, 2012).”
Background
Is adjustment disorder unidimensional or multidimensional? Implications for ICD‐11
Lorenz, L., Hyland, P., Perkonigg, A., & Maercker, A. R. A. (2017) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1591 · Cited by 32
“One solution to this problem may lie in the application of confirmatory bifactor modelling (CBM; Reise, 2012).”
Method
Toronto Alexithymia Scale–20: Examining 18 Competing Factor Structure Solutions in a U.S. Sample and a Philippines Sample
Tuliao, A. P., Klanecky, A. K., Mamauag, B. L., & McChargue, D. E. (2019) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191118824030 · Cited by 31
Ecological validity of a quantitative classification system for mental illness in treatment-seeking adults.
Conway, C., Mansolf, M. A., & Reise, S. P. (2019) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000695 · Cited by 36
Self-citation
Factorial validity of the Twi versions of five measures of mental health and well-being in Ghana
Appiah, R., Schutte, L., Fadiji, A. W., Wissing, M. P., & Cromhout, A. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236707 · Cited by 32
Validation and factor structure of the Italian version of the Birth Satisfaction Scale-Revised (BSS-R)
Nespoli, A., Colciago, E., Fumagalli, S., Locatelli, A., Martin, C. J. H., & Martin, C. R. (2020) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2020.1836333 · Cited by 34
“Since the bi-factor model was found to offer an acceptable fit to the data, comparison with the three-factor correlated model using the chi-square difference test is deemed permissible (Reise, 2012; Yuan & Bentler, 2004).”
Method
What are the consequences of ignoring cross-loadings in bifactor models? A simulation study assessing parameter recovery and sensitivity of goodness-of-fit indices
Ximénez, C., Revuelta, J., & Castañeda-Vozmediano, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923877 · Cited by 38
“However, the bifactor model was ignored for years and it has been rediscovered as a popular method to model construct dimensionality just in the last two decades (Reise, 2012; Reise et al., 2016).”
MethodInfluential
Validation of the Chinese Version of Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y)
Huang, L., Chen, Z., Jiang, W., Qu, D., Wang, Y., Fang, X., Han, H., Huang, C., Li, Z., & Chi, X. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02024-0 · Cited by 32
The psychometric development and initial validation of the DCI-A short form for adolescent therapeutic community treatment process
Stucky, B. D., Edelen, M. O., Vaughan, C., Tucker, J. S., & Butler, J. A. (2013) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2013.12.005 · Cited by 32
“ding the fit of bifactor models to data with varying degrees of see Reise, Scheines, Widaman, and Haviland (2013).”
The St George’s Respiratory Questionnaire revisited: a psychometric evaluation
Paap, M. C. S., Brouwer, D., Glas, C. A. W., Monninkhof, E. M., Forstreuter, B., Pieterse, M. E., & van der Palen, J. A. M. (2013) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-013-0570-y · Cited by 32
Further examination of the factor structure of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF): Measurement considerations for women, men of color, and gay men.
McDermott, R. C., Levant, R. F., Hammer, J. H., Hall, R. J., McKelvey, D. K., & Jones, Z. K. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000225 · Cited by 32
“In addition to clarifying previous MRNI-SF bifactor specifications, recent recommendations for best practices in bifactor modeling (Reise, 2012; Rodriguez, Reise, & Haviland, 2016) suggest additional analyses could provide a more nuanced understanding of how the MRNI-SF functions and how observed…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Sensory and affective components of symptom perception
Walentynowicz, M., Witthöft, M., Raes, F., Diest, I. V., & den Bergh, O. V. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.059716 · Cited by 32
“In the bifactor model, each symptom shares both general and specific components of systematic variance (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Lost at the Edge of Uncertainty: Measuring Player Uncertainty in Digital Games
Power, C., Cairns, P. A., Denisova, A., Papaioannou, T., & Gultom, R. (2018) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2018.1507161 · Cited by 31
“Since doing that analysis, we have learned about newer techniques in factor analysis including item response theory (IRT) (Embretson & Reise, 2013) and bi-factor analysis (Reise, 2012).”
Method
The Component Structure of the Dizziness Handicap Inventory (DHI): A Reappraisal
Wyngaerde, K. V. D., Lee, M. K., Jacobson, G. P., Pasupathy, K. S., Brufau, S. R., & McCaslin, D. L. (2019) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0000000000002365 · Cited by 31
Recalling Experiences: Looking at Momentary, Retrospective and Global Assessments of Relationship Satisfaction
Zygar–Hoffmann, C., & Schönbrodt, F. D. (2020) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.278 · Cited by 32
Exploratory Bifactor Analysis of the WJ-III Cognitive in Adulthood via the Schmid–Leiman Procedure
Dombrowski, S. C. (2013) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282913508243 · Cited by 31
“Again, low ωh coefficients suggest that interpretation of the factor indices beyond the general factor is inappropriate as little variance exists beyond the general factor (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Dutch Version of the Emotion Reactivity Scale
Claes, L., Smits, D., & Bijttebier, P. (2013) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000171 · Cited by 31
Cross-cultural confirmation of bi-factor models of a symptom distress measure: Symptom Checklist-90-Revised in clinical samples
Urbán, R., Arrindell, W. A., Demetrovics, Z., Unoka, Z., & Timman, R. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.03.039 · Cited by 31
“Accordingly, estimating the bi-factor measurement structure is proposed to be an effective approach to modeling construct-relevant multidimensionality (Reise, 2012).”
Influential
Factor structure of the WISC‐V in four standardization age groups: Exploratory and hierarchical factor analyses with the 16 primary and secondary subtests
Canivez, G. L., Dombrowski, S. C., & Watkins, M. W. (2018) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22138 · Cited by 30
Psychometric Properties of a French-Canadian Version of the Test of Gross Motor Development – Third Edition (TGMD-3): A Bifactor Structural Equation Modeling Approach
Maïano, C., Morin, A. J. S., April, J., Webster, E. K., Hue, O. A., Dugas, C., & Ulrich, D. A. (2021) · Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science · doi:10.1080/1091367x.2021.1946541 · Cited by 30
“Matching typical bifactor solutions (Morin et al., 2016; Reise, 2012), all factors were specified as orthogonal Moreover, a one-factor solution was also examined.”
BackgroundMethod
Examining the latent structure and correlates of sensory reactivity in autism: a multi-site integrative data analysis by the autism sensory research consortium
Williams, Z. J., Schaaf, R. C., Ausderau, K., Baranek, G. T., Barrett, D. J., Cascio, C. J., Dumont, R. L., Eyoh, E. E., Failla, M. D., Feldman, J. I., et al. (2023) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-023-00563-4 · Cited by 35
“Utilizing modern psychometric techniques such as item response theory (IRT [105, 106]) and bifactor modeling [69, 70, 107], the current IDA sought to rigorously evaluate the latent structure of sensory features in autism across multiple measures.”
BackgroundMethod
Course of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder: Emergence of overvaluation of shape/weight
Kambanis, P. E., Mancuso, C. J., Becker, K. R., Eddy, K. T., Thomas, J. J., & Young, K. P. D. (2024) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-024-01001-3 · Cited by 33
Psychometric Properties of a Multidimensional Scale of Sense of Community in the School
Prati, G., Cicognani, E., & Albanesi, C. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01466 · Cited by 33
Modeling College and Career Readiness for Adolescents With and Without Disabilities: A Bifactor Approach
Lombardi, A. R., Freeman, J., & Rifenbark, G. G. (2017) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402917731557 · Cited by 30
“…by disturbance parameters (i.e., variance that is not explained by the second-order factor); therefore, determining the effect of a first-order disturbance on outcomes (e.g., controlling for CCR, the effect of Transition Knowledge) in a structural equation model is intractable (Reise, 2012).”
Background

Authors: Reise, S. P.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: Reise, Steven P.
ORCID: Reise, Steven P.
Venue: Multivariate Behavioral Research
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 47
Issue: 5
Pages: 667-696
ISSN: 0027-3171 (ISSN-L)
1532-7906
DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
PMC: PMC3773879
OpenAlex: W2025929695
Cited by: 2,112
References: 70
Citations by year: 2026: 203 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 134 · 2023: 174 · 2022: 165 · 2021: 200 · 2020: 222 · 2019: 181 · 2018: 203 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 139 · 2015: 98 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 4
FWCI: 85.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Multivariate Behavioral Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute on Drug Abuse (RL1DA024853)
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (U01AR052177)
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (UL1DE019580)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: bifactor model, multidimensionality, general factor, parameter invariance, nested models, construct measurement, psychometric properties

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks