Cited by 2,112Psychometric Methodologies and TestingMental Health Research TopicsPersonality Traits and Psychology

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The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

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Reise, Steven P.·2012·Multivariate Behavioral Research

DOI 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555PMC PMC3773879

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Abstract

multidimensionality in a set of ordered categorical item responses. I begin by describing the Schmid-Leiman bifactor procedure (Schmid & Leiman, 1957), and highlight its relations with correlated-factors and second-order exploratory factor models. After describing limitations of the Schmid-Leiman, two newer methods of exploratory bifactor modeling are considered, namely, analytic bifactor (Jennrich & Bentler, 2011) and target bifactor rotations (Reise, Moore, & Maydeu-Olivares, 2011). In section two, I discuss limited and full-information estimation approaches to confirmatory bifactor models that have emerged from the item response theory and factor analysis traditions, respectively. Comparison of the confirmatory bifactor model to alternative nested confirmatory models and establishing parameter invariance for the general factor also are discussed. In the final section, important applications of bifactor models are reviewed. These applications demonstrate that bifactor modeling potentially provides a solid foundation for conceptualizing psychological constructs, constructing measures, and evaluating a measure's psychometric properties. However, some applications of the bifactor model may be limited due to its restrictive assumptions.

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How many emotional intelligence abilities are there? An examination of four measures of emotional intelligence
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., Sitarenios, G., & Escobar, M. R. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2023.112468 · Cited by 43
Extending Structural Analyses of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to Consider Criterion-Related Validity: Can Composite Self-Esteem Scores Be Good Enough?
Donnellan, M. B., Ackerman, R. A., & Brecheen, C. (2015) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2015.1058268 · Cited by 43
“…of 3,862 high school students in line with the renewed interest in the bifactor approach for evaluating multidimensional constructs (e.g., Chen, Hayes, Carver, Laurenceau, & Zhang, 2012; Chen, West, & Sousa, 2006; Reise, 2012; Reise, Bonifay, & Haviland, 2013; Reise, Moore, & Haviland, 2010).”
Method
The relations among openness, perseverance, and performance in creative problem solving: A substantive-methodological approach
Scherer, R., & Gustafsson, J. (2015) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.04.004 · Cited by 46
Lord–Wingersky Algorithm Version 2.0 for Hierarchical Item Factor Models with Applications in Test Scoring, Scale Alignment, and Model Fit Testing
Cai, L. (2014) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-014-9411-3 · Cited by 43
“As Reise (2012) noted, the bifactor model is appealing because it offers a convenient mechanism to accommodate nuisance multidimensionality without sacrificing the interpretability of the general dimension, which ultimately represents the target latent construct being measured, in contrast to other…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Structure of Multidimensional Perfectionism: Support for a Bifactor Model With a Dominant General Factor
Smith, M. M., & Saklofske, D. H. (2016) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1208209 · Cited by 43
“The decision to use the chi-square statistic to compare the fit of correlated factor models to bifactor models is defensible, as the correlated factor model is nested within the bifactor model (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Doubly Latent Multilevel Procedures for Organizational Assessment and Prediction
Morin, A. J. S., Blais, A.-R., & Chénard‐Poirier, L. A. (2021) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-021-09736-5 · Cited by 47
“Bifactor models, albeit less parsimonious, are more flexible in allowing for direct estimation of associations between items and latent constructs (Gignac, 2016; Reise, 2012).”
Background
Classroom management and students' mathematics achievement: The role of students’ disruptive behavior and teacher classroom management
Marder, J., Thiel, F., & Göllner, R. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101746 · Cited by 69
A psychometric examination of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale among college men.
Davidson, M. M., Gervais, S. J., Canivez, G. L., & Cole, B. P. (2013) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032075 · Cited by 42
“Recently, Reise (2012) noted the resurgence in bifactor modeling, which has given rise to challenges regarding previous and contemporary thoughts on measurement.”
Background
The Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences short version: Further validation
Fonseca‐Pedrero, E., Sierra, J. O., Mason, O. J., & Muñiz, J. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.041 · Cited by 42
“Likewise, new measurement models, such as bifactor models (Reise, 2012) or Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM) (Marsh, Morin, Parker, & Kaur, 2014), have yet to be explored in depth.”
Method
Examining the Latent Structure of the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System
Karr, J. E., Hofer, S. M., Iverson, G. L., & García-Barrera, M. A. (2018) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acy043 · Cited by 44
“…model, the reliability of the general and specific factors was calculated using omega-hierarchical (ωH) and omega-subscale values (ωS), which provide estimates of variance accounted for by the bifactor and the specific factors (i.e., inhibition, shifting, fluency), respectively (Reise, 2012).”
Method
Development and validation of a five-item Male Role Norms Inventory using bifactor modeling.
McDermott, R. C., Levant, R. F., Hammer, J. H., Borgogna, N. C., & McKelvey, D. K. (2018) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/men0000178 · Cited by 42
Associations of Lifestyle Behaviour and Healthy Ageing in Five Latin American and the Caribbean Countries—A 10/66 Population-Based Cohort Study
Daskalopoulou, C., Koukounari, A., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Prince, M. J., & Prina, M. A. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10111593 · Cited by 42
“To create a measurement model for healthy ageing, we employed the framework of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) [22].”
The principled leadership scale: An integration of value-based leadership
Hendrikz, K., & Engelbrecht, A. S. (2019) · SA Journal of Industrial Psychology · doi:10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1553 · Cited by 58
“This suggests that a bi-factor model (Chen, West, & Sousa, 2006; Reise, 2012) in which each item measures one of four narrow, specific principled leadership dimensions (group factors) but in which all 58 items also reflect a broad, more general, principled leadership factor might possibly display…”
Background
Dynamic mutualism versus g factor theory: An empirical test
Gignac, G. E. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.004 · Cited by 46
“The bifactor model is also associated with attractive qualities with respect to factor solution interpretation and factor strength estimation (Gignac, 2007a; Reise, 2012; Reise, Scheines, et al., 2013).”
Background
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder dimensionality: the reliable ‘g’ and the elusive ‘s’ dimensions
Wagner, F., Martel, M. M., Cogo‐Moreira, H., Maia, C. R. M., Pan, P. M., Rohde, L. A., & Salum, G. A. (2015) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0709-1 · Cited by 43
“, showing what would the reliability of subscale score be if the effects of the general factor were removed) [35].”
Factor structure of the Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition: Exploratory and hierarchical factor analyses with the core subtests.
Canivez, G. L., & McGill, R. J. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000279 · Cited by 40
“…(SL) orthogonalization procedure produces an approximate exploratory bifactor (Holzinger & Swineford, 1937) solution (Canivez, in press; Reise, 2012), but may be constrained by proportionality (Yung, Thissen, & McLeod, 1999), and may be problematic with nonzero cross-loadings (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Development and validation of the collective psychological ownership scale in organizational contexts
Su, X., & Ng, S. (2018) · International Social Work · doi:10.1177/0020872818767483 · Cited by 41
“Bi-factor analysis was introduced over 70 years ago, but only recently has been rediscovered as an effective approach to modeling construct-relevant multidimensionality in a set of ordered categorical item responses (Reise, 2012; Reise et al., 2007).”
Method
Fractionation of impulsive and compulsive trans-diagnostic phenotypes and their longitudinal associations
Chamberlain, S. R., Tiego, J., Fontenelle, L. F., Hook, R. W., Parkes, L., Segrave, R. A., Hauser, T. U., Dolan, R. J., Goodyer, I. M., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2019) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867419844325 · Cited by 46
“A recent resurgence of interest in bi-factor models in psychiatry (Reise, 2012; St Clair et al., 2017) has yet to be adequately deployed and tested in latent phenotyping studies of impulsivity and compulsivity (Chamberlain et al., 2017; Guo et al., 2017).”
Influential
Validation of the Expressions of Moral Injury Scale‐Military version‐Short Form
Currier, J. M., Isaak, S. L., & McDermott, R. C. (2019) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2407 · Cited by 50
A Bifactor Model of Personality Organization
Hörz‐Sagstetter, S., Volkert, J., Rentrop, M., Benecke, C., Gremaud-Heitz, D. J., Unterrainer, ., Schauenburg, H., Seidler, D., Buchheim, A., Doering, S., et al. (2020) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2019.1705463 · Cited by 44
Structural Validity of the WISC-IV for Students With Learning Disabilities
Styck, K. M., & Watkins, M. W. (2016) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219414539565 · Cited by 40
Toward an Improved Understanding of Work Motivation Profiles
Tóth‐Király, I., Morin, A. J. S., Bőthe, B., Rigó, A., & Orosz, G. (2021) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12256 · Cited by 40
Validation of the mental health continuum-short form: The bifactor model of emotional, social, and psychological well-being
Yeo, Z., & Suárez, L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0268232 · Cited by 53
“MacDonald’s ωH and ωS coefficients were caluclated to identify any unique variance of well-being contributed by the GWB dimension and the various subscales [56].”
Method
Factor structure of the Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol neuropsychological battery in the Health and Retirement Study
Jones, R. N., Manly, J. J., Langa, K. M., Ryan, L. H., Levine, D. A., McCammon, R. J., & Weir, D. R. (2023) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561772300019x · Cited by 42
“Specific methods factors, uncorrelated with domain or general factors, were specified a priori to capture item-level residual covariance when indicators derived from the same stimulus (e.g., immediate and delayed recall of a common word list, short story, or design set) (Reise, 2012).”
Method
The Prowess and Pitfalls of Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling
Stromeyer, W. R., Miller, J. W., Sriramachandramurthy, R., & DeMartino, R. (2014) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206314551962 · Cited by 42
“Second, high correlations between common factors may suggest that a bifactor model (Holzinger & Swineford, 1937; Reise, 2012) is more appropriate than a correlated factors model.”
Background
Direct Schmid–Leiman Transformations and Rank-Deficient Loadings Matrices
Waller, N. G. (2017) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-017-9599-0 · Cited by 43
The Flow Short Scale (FSS) Dimensionality and What MIMIC Shows on Heterogeneity and Invariance
Kyriazos, T. A., Stalikas, A., Prassa, K., Galanakis, M., Flora, K., & Chatzilia, V. (2018) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2018.96083 · Cited by 43
“Finally, three Bifactor CFA (Schmid & Leiman, 1957) and two Bifactor ESEM models (c.f. Reise, 2012) were examined.”
Method
Using estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis to examine the unique effects of the latent variables measured by the WAIS-IV on academic achievement.
Kranzler, J. H., Benson, N., & Floyd, R. G. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000119 · Cited by 39
The dimensionality and latent structure of mental health difficulties and wellbeing in early adolescence.
Black, L., Panayiotou, M., & Humphrey, N. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0213018 · Cited by 38
Testing Spearman's hypotheses using a bi-factor model with WAIS-IV/WMS-IV standardization data
Frisby, C. L., & Beaujean, A. A. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.007 · Cited by 39
Multi-informant Assessment of Internalizing Concerns: Rater Concordance and Implications for Decision-Making
von der Embse, N. P., Kim, E., Ross, D., Kilgus, S. P., & Koza, T. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10026-y · Cited by 39
Does Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Fit Within a Bi-Factor Model of ADHD?
Garner, A. A., Peugh, J., Becker, S. P., Kingery, K. M., Tamm, L., Vaughn, A. J., Ciesielski, H. A., Simon, J. O., Loren, R. E. A., & Epstein, J. N. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054714539995 · Cited by 42
“Traditionally, because the shared variance between the specific factors is thought to be “conditional” on the g factor, bi-factor modeling specifies that latent factors are orthogonal (Reise, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Bifactor latent structure of ADHD / ODD symptoms: predictions of dual‐pathway/trait‐impulsivity etiological models of ADHD
Burns, G. L., de Moura, M. A., Beauchaine, T. P., & McBurnett, K. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12165 · Cited by 42
“The x values were conceptually similar to coefficient alpha (Reise, 2012).”
Method
Quality-of-life assessment in dementia: the use of DEMQOL and DEMQOL-Proxy total scores
Chua, K., Brown, A., Little, R., Matthews, D., Morton, L., Loftus, V., Watchurst, C., Tait, R., Romeo, R., & Banerjee, S. (2016) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-016-1343-1 · Cited by 42
Relations between common and specific factors of anxiety sensitivity and distress tolerance and fear, distress, and alcohol and substance use disorders
Allan, N. P., Macatee, R. J., Norr, A. M., Raines, A. M., & Schmidt, N. B. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.05.002 · Cited by 45
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress: How Should Clinicians Interpret the Total and Subscale Scores of the 21-Item Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales?
Chin, E. G., Buchanan, E. M., Ebesutani, C. K., & Young, J. N. (2018) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294118783508 · Cited by 39
“…words, the ratio of item to subfactor and subfactor to general factor loadings needs to be equal within each subgroup cluster (e.g., all items within the anxiety subgroup) in order for the Schmid–Leiman method to generate precise estimates of factor loadings in the bifactor model (Reise, 2012).”
Influential
Factor Structure of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale in Treatment Seeking Adults with Eating Disorders
Nordgren, L., Monell, E., Birgegård, A., Bjureberg, J., & Hesser, H. (2019) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-019-09765-8 · Cited by 38
“…1997) that uses all sources of reliable variances in the calculation of estimates of reliability (and is comparable to a weighted alpha coefficient; Reise 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2016a, b), and Hierarchical Omega (OmegaH; Rodriguez et al. 2016b; Zinbarg et al. 2005) that uses only the reliable…”
Method
The brief (seven‐item) eating disorder examination‐questionnaire : Evaluation of a non‐nested version in men and women
Jenkins, P. E., & Davey, E. (2020) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23360 · Cited by 40
“Due to the constraints on hierarchical modeling approaches with scales of fewer than three items (e.g., Reise, 2012), it was not possible to test a hierarchical or bifactor model of the three-factor EDE-Q7, and so use of the Global score obtained from the EDE-Q7 cannot currently be supported.”
Method
A longitudinal analysis of motivation profiles at work
Howard, J. L., Morin, A. J. S., & Gagné, M. (2020) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-020-09852-4 · Cited by 48
“2016a; Reise 2012).”
Measuring the Dark Core of Personality in German: Psychometric Properties, Measurement Invariance, Predictive Validity, and Self-Other Agreement
Bader, M., Horsten, L. K., Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., & Moshagen, M. (2021) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2021.1984931 · Cited by 43
“…for measuring an essentially unidimensional construct while controlling for any multidimensionality due to other minor sources of variance (Reise, 2012) as well as for determining the reliability of the general factor versus the reliability of the more specific factors after controlling…”
BackgroundMethod

Authors: Reise, S. P.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: Reise, Steven P.
ORCID: Reise, Steven P.
Venue: Multivariate Behavioral Research
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 47
Issue: 5
Pages: 667-696
ISSN: 0027-3171 (ISSN-L)
1532-7906
DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
PMC: PMC3773879
OpenAlex: W2025929695
Cited by: 2,112
References: 70
Citations by year: 2026: 203 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 134 · 2023: 174 · 2022: 165 · 2021: 200 · 2020: 222 · 2019: 181 · 2018: 203 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 139 · 2015: 98 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 4
FWCI: 85.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Multivariate Behavioral Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute on Drug Abuse (RL1DA024853)
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (U01AR052177)
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (UL1DE019580)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: bifactor model, multidimensionality, general factor, parameter invariance, nested models, construct measurement, psychometric properties

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The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models

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