Cited by 161Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesEducational and Psychological AssessmentsEducational methodologies and cognitive development

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 12 of the 12 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Learning as a Generative Process

WITTROCK, M. C.·2010·Educational Psychologist

DOI 10.1080/00461520903433554

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

A cognitive model of human learning with understanding is introduced. Empirical research supporting the model, which is called the generative model, is summarized. The model is used to suggest a way to integrate some of the research in cognitive development, human learning, human abilities, information processing, and aptitude-treatment interactions around the notion of transfer of experience and abilities.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00461520903433554

Cites

12 of 12 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Principles of behavior modification
Bandura, A. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,631
Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0020071 · Cited by 4,540
Imagery and Verbal Processes
Mezei, Á., & Paivio, A. (1972) · Leonardo · doi:10.2307/1572599 · Cited by 3,265
Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality
Mischel, W. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0035002 · Cited by 3,181
The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.
Ausubel, D. P. (1960) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0046669 · Cited by 1,457
Organization and Memory
Mandler, G. (1967) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60516-2 · Cited by 912
Interference and forgetting.
Underwood, B. J. (1957) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0044616 · Cited by 853
Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness.
Sperry, R. W. (1968) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0026839 · Cited by 806
Causal ascriptions and achievement behavior: A conceptual analysis of effort and reanalysis of locus of control.
Weiner, B. L., Heckhausen, H., & Meyer, W. (1972) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0032307 · Cited by 378
Generative processes in reading comprehension.
Doctorow, M., Wittrock, M., & Marks, C. (1978) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.70.2.109 · Cited by 247
Self-citation

Show all 12 references

Research works printed but not linked: 4

Atkinson R. C., 1973, Changing schools: Alternatives from educational research, 65
Bower G. H., 1972, Organization of memory, 93
Neisser U., 1967, Cognitive psychology
Wittrock M. C., 1975, Generative processing of organized information

Sorted by citations

Items 101–161 of 161

Memorizing plans with an app: Large individual differences in the effectiveness of retrieval-based and generative learning activities in a naturalistic context
Biedermann, D., Breitwieser, J., Nobbe, L., Drachsler, H., & Brod, G. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102641 · Cited by 1
A Study on Instructional Design and Application of Information Technology Courses Based on Generative Artificial Intelligence
Yang, H., Li, J., Jiang, C., Xiang, Q., Liang, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025) · International Conference on e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning · doi:10.1109/ic4e65071.2025.11075458 · Cited by 1
Academic ability generates better quality feedback: Evidence from PeerWise assessments
Huang, W., Stephens, J. M., & Brown, G. (2026) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101566 · Cited by 1
What can be learned from action learning coaching? Learnings of novice action learners and their coach
Carter, A. D. (2018) · Action Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/14767333.2018.1550740 · Cited by 1
Part 11: Learning Strategies
Black, S., & Allen, J. D. (2019) · The Reference Librarian · doi:10.1080/02763877.2019.1626317 · Cited by 3
Brain-Friendly Learning Tips for Long-Term Retention and Recall
Mehring, J., & Thomson, R. (2016) · The Language Teacher · doi:10.37546/jalttlt40.4-2 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Training in Test Item Writing on Test Performance of Junior High Students
Tunks, J. (2001) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055690125387 · Cited by 1
Construction of College English Blended Teaching Model Based on Internet + Platform
Wei, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Educational Research · doi:10.25236/fer.2022.050506 · Cited by 1
Conocimiento enciclopédico y cultura transmitida en los diccionarios
Moreno, M. Á. M. (2022) · Études romanes de Brno · doi:10.5817/erb2022-2-15 · Cited by 1
From rote learning to deep learning: Filling the gap by enhancing engineering students' reasoning skills through explanatory learning activities
Qi, H., Kim, M., Li, Y., Sandoval, C. L., Schurgers, C., Lubarda, M. V., Gedney, X., Baghdadchi, S., & Phan, A. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--43756 · Cited by 1
Visual Representations for Science Teaching and Learning
Moreno, E. R., Cedeño, E. F. A., & Alvarado, D. A. R. (2024) · Contemporary trends and issues in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52830-9_14 · Cited by 1
Collaborative concept mapping in team-based learning: synthesizing complex immunology concepts in medical education
Baxa, D. M., Taylor, T. A. H., Cortés, C., & Kemp, K. L. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1604406 · Cited by 1
The Importance of Early Childhood Education and Development in Indonesia
Budiharjo, B. (2017) · International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering · doi:10.14257/ijmue.2017.12.4.12 · Cited by 1
Supporting Learners in the Classroom
Bailey, L. W. (2018) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6361-7.ch009 · Cited by 1
EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF THREE JIGSAW LISTENING ACTIVITIES ON TEXT COMPREHENSION: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Duc, N. C., & Tho, P. X. (2020) · VNU Journal of Foreign Studies · doi:10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4473 · Cited by 1
Strategic Considerations for KINDERGARTENS in Leading Learning of Orang Asli Students
Rabahi, M., Yusof, H. B., Awang, M., & Jawaid, A. (2020) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v10-i7/7458 · Cited by 5
Learning and Instruction in Higher Education Classrooms
Schwartz, N. H., & Bartel, A. N. (2021) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_70-2 · Cited by 1
A Theory of Effective Computer-Based Instruction for Adults
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., III, & Swanson, R. A. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780080964249-26 · Cited by 1
Learner-Generated Visualizations and Their Evaluation: A Generative Learning Perspective
Cerreto, F. A., & Lee, J. (2022) · doi:10.52917/ivlatbsr.2022.015 · Cited by 1
Learning and Instruction in Higher Education Classrooms
Schwartz, N. H., & Bartel, A. N. (2022) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_70 · Cited by 1
Introduction
Lawson, M. J., & Kirby, J. R. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139048224.002 · Cited by 1
Basic Skills Resource Center. A Review of the Literature on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language: The Potential for Research Applications
O’Malley, J. M., Russo, R. P., & Chamot, A. U. (1985) · doi:10.21236/ada160395 · Cited by 1
Learning by Teaching in the Wild: Domain, Grades, and School Track MatterPreprint
Sibley, L., Russ, H., & Lachner, A. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/d293m · Cited by 1
AQUISIÇÃO DE VOCABULÁRIO: O EFEITO DE GLOSSÁRIOS ELETRÔNICOS
Foohs, M., Tarouco, L., & Axt, M. (2005) · RENOTE · doi:10.22456/1679-1916.13961
Model for Training, Empowering, and Organizing Churches in the Mampong-west District for Shared Leadership in the Central Ghana Conference of Seventh-day Adventists
Adomako, M. (2014) · doi:10.32597/dmin/3/
A Research on Cooperative Learning in College English Teaching
Xiao-hui, X., & Wang, L. (2015) · International Conference on Social Science, Education Management and Sports Education (SSEMSE) · doi:10.2991/ssemse-15.2015.461
Orientação para o Mercado, Aprendizagem Geradora e Estratégias de Inovação: um estudo no setor hospitalar.
Monteiro, M. R., Bora, S. M., & Machado, A. G. C. (2013) · RAHIS - Revista de Administração Hospitalar e Inovação em Saúde · doi:10.21450/rahis.v10i2.1942
Diseño y elaboración de experimentos demostrativos para la enseñanza de la física en la aula de clase
Rodríguez, Á. A., García, C. I. P., Murillo, F. M., & Sierra, H. G. (2001) · Paideia Surcolombiana · doi:10.25054/01240307.1022
Evaluation of acoustical position determination in a classroom scenario
Nicolay, R., & Mundt, T. (2016) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2016.7757654
BINAAN MODUL PENGAJARAN-PEMBELAJARAN SOMPOTON SANDAD (ALAT MUZIK TRADISIONAL MASYARAKAT KADAZANDUSUN, SABAH)
Dainal, E. (2020) · Jurnal Kinabalu · doi:10.51200/ejk.v0i0.1124
School Life on the Mississippi: an Inquiry Into the Impact of the Louisiana Reform Movement Related to Standards in World History Instruction in Three Secondary School Settings.
Schramm, M. J. (2000) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_disstheses.7388
The Effect of Using the Generative Model on the Acquisition of Mathematical Concepts and Problem Solving for 7th Grade Students in Light of their Logical Thinking
at., A. S. A.-A. (2018) · Journal of Educational & Psychological Sciences · doi:10.12785/jeps/190213
Infection Prevention and Control Training-Design of a Workbook Prototype
Tamim, S. R., Homsi, M. R., Happ, B., & Caniza, M. A. (2020) · Advances in medical education, research, and ethics (AMERE) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-5092-2.ch003
برنامج مقترح فى العلوم قائم على التفکير الإيجابي والتعلم التوليدي واستخدام الخرائط الذهنية في تنمية مهارات الحل الإبداعي للمشکلات والدافعية للإنجاز والتحصيل المعرفي لتلاميذ المرحلة الإعدادية
الموجى, أ. م. د. أ. م. س. ا. (2019) · المجلة المصرية للتربية العلمية · doi:10.21608/mktm.2019.114109
A Speech Synthesis Model with Mood Based on Variational Autoencoder
王, 研. (2020) · Computer Science and Application · doi:10.12677/csa.2020.1012227
Technology in the classroom: Exploring the experience of secondary students using activity theory
Bennett, L. A. (2019) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17139656
View Entire Issue
Editor, R. M. B. (2009) · Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology · doi:10.21432/t27k69
Prosiding Seminar Internasional Riksa Bahasa X Literasi dan Budaya Bangsa Volume 2Preprint
Dede, M. (2019) · doi:10.31227/osf.io/n45a3
Teaching With Charisma
Milojkovic, J. D. (2019) · To improve the academy · doi:10.3998/tia.17063888.0001.021
The Reflection and Applied Research of Flipped Classroom Model in Chinese EFL Classroom
(2022) · Journal of Educational Research and Policies · doi:10.53469/jerp.2022.04(05).28
Teacher-Generated Drawing Strategy - Green Rice Served at the Last Supper
Barreira, R., Campos, S. A., & Félix, M. J. (2022) · Springer series in design and innovation · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_57
Static and Interactive Concept Maps to Enhance Learning Performance in Chemistry
Wong, R. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1436066
User-generated versus pre-made digital flashcardsPreprint
Pan, S. C., Zung, I., & Imundo, M. N. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/f5k8p
Which Role Should I Choose in Role-Based Online Discussion? An In-Depth Analysis of Role Difference
Song, N., Feng, Q., Chen, Y., & Luo, H. (2022) · International Conference on Computer Science and Technologies in Education (CSTE) · doi:10.1109/cste55932.2022.00047
A Quasi-Experimental Study of English Vocabulary Teaching Based on Incidental Acquisition
Yan, S., Shen, Y., & Ma, Y. (2023) · Open Journal of Applied Sciences · doi:10.4236/ojapps.2023.132019
Technology in the classroom: Exploring the experience of secondary students using activity theory
Bennett, L. A. (2019) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17139656.v1
Youth as Teaching Professionals
Sunny, A. M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4969-4_12
فاعلية استخدام نموذج الاستقصاء القائم على الجدل (ADI) لتدريس الأحياء في تـنمـية الفهـم العميق لدى طالبات المرحلة الثانوية
الزهراني, ع. ب. ص. ب. ع., & العمـودي, ه. ب. س. ب. أ. (2024) · التربية (الأزهر) مجلة علمية محکمة للبحوث التربوية والنفسية والاجتماعية) · doi:10.21608/jsrep.2024.339186
Invent a Kid Project: Fostering Creative Reflective Practice in Teacher Candidates
Poland, K. S., Bardsley, M. E., & Vermette, P. J. (2024) · Excelsior Leadership in Teaching and Learning · doi:10.14305/jn.19440413.2024.17.1.04
Two or more are better than one: a meta-analysis on collaborative concept mapping
Wong, R. M., Hong-yan, Y., & Adesope, O. (2025) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-025-10161-2
Partner Decision-Making
Kolpin, T., Shoemaker, E., & Cindy, C. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64113-039-420251004
Favoriser un apprentissage actif : Effets des tests d’entraînement sur les processus cognitifs et métacognitifs
Fernandez, J. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c7ad77ddz9976z4beeza5b9zd163df512099
Effet des activités de génération sur l’apprentissage des étudiants dans des environnements multimédias interactifs
Colliot, T. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/d2725a9bz479bz4212z8ce0z60e493e22e29
Mixed effects of retrieval practice on the acquisition of procedural knowledge in verb spelling education
Ophuis‐Cox, F. H. A., Catrysse, L., & Camp, G. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102377
Digital storytelling in economics education: the use of analogy-based cartoons to improve student performance
Demirbaş, E., Gillani, A. A., Isah, A., & Fotou, N. (2026) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2026.2680720
Designing effective feedback in video lectures using GenAI: The roles of feedback type and learner agency in error detection
Pi, Z., Cao, Y., Zhang, Y., Ma, Y., Cao, W., & Li, X. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105722
Self-Generated Questions as Evidence of Reading Comprehension: A Diagnostic-Feedback Model for College Students' Academic Reading
Chen, Z., Zhou, H., Liao, L., & Li, X. (2026) · International Conference on Computer Science and Technologies in Education (CSTE) · doi:10.1109/cste69562.2026.11649756
Happy or redundant? Retrieval practice enhances lasting learning in non-interactive teaching for low-quality explanations
Russ, H., Endres, T., Sibley, L., Flegr, S., Kühn, J., Hoogerheide, V., Scheiter, K., & Lachner, A. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102462
Virtual Immersive Training is Non-inferior to Real-world Simulation in Drug Dispensing: A Three-arm Randomized Controlled Trial (Preprint)Preprint
Chen, J.-H., Chang, E. H., Huang, L.-S., Kuo, L.-N., Cheng, K., & Kang, E. Y.-N. (2026) · doi:10.2196/preprints.98210
Seeing it in a new light: do cross-disciplinary comparisons improve understanding of economic and financial concepts?
Milovanska-Farrington, S., Laforge, O. M., & Burton, J. L. (2026) · Journal of International Education in Business · doi:10.1108/jieb-01-2026-0001
Effects of Cueing and Self-Explanation on Chemistry Video Learning Across Tasks with Different Cognitive Demands
Li, M., He, K., & Ye, J. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6c00271

Authors: WITTROCK, M. C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: WITTROCK, M. C.
Venue: Educational Psychologist
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2010-01-21
Volume: 45
Issue: 1
Pages: 40-45
ISSN: 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
1532-6985
DOI: 10.1080/00461520903433554
OpenAlex: W4251649666
Cited by: 160
References: 12
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 4
FWCI: 5.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational methodologies and cognitive development
Keywords: understanding, transfer of learning, aptitude-treatment interaction, cognitive development, human capabilities, information processing

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Learning as a Generative Process

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks