Women of Later Han

May combine two claims.

Ban Zhao cited the classics and argued for education chiefly to help a wife serve her new family better.

“Ban Zhao cited the classics and argued the importance of education; chiefly, however, to help a wife serve her new family better”

• cites HHS 84/74:2786-2792Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swann 1932Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Most of Fan Ye's female protagonists were noted for family loyalty, though it took different forms.

“Most of Fan Ye's protagonists were noted for family loyalty, though it appeared in differing forms”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Nüjie encourages modesty and submission.

“Nüjie encourages modesty and submission”

• cites HHS 84/74:2786-2792Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swann 1932Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Han women had rights concerning property, divorce, and remarriage.

“with rights to property, divorce and remarriage”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a pre-modern society, childbirth was dangerous.

“In a pre-modern society, childbirth was dangerous”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Each childbirth carried a one to two percent chance of the mother's death.

May combine two claims.

Daughters of great families could receive special selection, and several are described as thirteen sui; Deng Sui was intended to enter the palace at that age but delayed three years to mourn her father.

“Daughters of great families could receive special selection and several are specifically described as thirteen sui at the time, while Deng Sui 鄧綏, future Empress and then Dowager of Emperor He 和, was intended to enter the palace at that age but delayed three years to mourn her father”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ergot-based concoctions were known as abortifacients but were also poisonous; opinions and practice about dosage varied greatly, with occasional success but potentially fatal side effects.

“Concoctions based upon ergota fungus found on some grasseswere known as abortifacients but were also poisonous, and opinions and practice about dosage varied grossly, with occasional [40] success but potentially fatal side-effects”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Theories of conception and advice about fertility were mistaken.

“Unfortunately, moreover, theories of conception and advice about fertility were mistaken”

May combine two claims.

Many imperial consorts or concubines married and gave birth in their teens: Emperor Zhang appointed Empress Dou in 78 when she was fifteen sui, and the next year Lady Liang gave birth to the future Emperor He at eighteen sui.

“Emperor Zhang appointed his Empress Dou 竇in 78 when she was fifteen sui, and in the following year his concubine the Lady Liang 梁 gave birth to the future Emperor He at eighteen sui”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Contraception methods were uncertain.

“Contraception methods were uncertain”

May combine two claims.

These teachings were ignored in practice: young emperors were regularly capped in their teens, and imperial harem candidates were recruited from girls of thirteen sui, about twelve years old by Western reckoning.

“Such teachings, however, were ignored in practice: young emperors were regularly capped in their teens, 38 while candidates for the imperial harem were recruited from young women of thirteen sui, about twelve years old by Western reckoning”

• cites HHS 4:171Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites de C 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A daughter could be a misfortune: a drain on family resources, of short-term domestic value, and a future marriage expense after which she joined another household and was no further use to her original family.

“A daughter could be a misfortune: a drain on family resources; of short-term value about the home; and a charge in the future when money was required for her marriageafter which she joined another household and was no further use to her original family”

May combine two claims.

Breast-feeding might delay the next pregnancy; alum, vinegar, brine, and oily or sticky vaginal substances had some effect; amulets and charms were useless.

“Breast-feeding might delay the next pregnancy; alum, vinegar, brine and oily or sticky substances in the vagina had some effect; amulets and charms were, of course, useless”

May combine two claims.

At every social level, and especially among the poor, a boy was preferred because he would maintain the lineage, serve the ancestors, and support his parents in old age.

“At every level of society and particularly among the poor, a boy was better: he would maintain the lineage, serve the ancestors and support his parents in their old age”

May combine two claims.

Besides the injury, pain, and exhaustion of normal birth, an awkward presentation of the fetus could lead to agonizing death, and poor hygiene created a high possibility of infection for several weeks afterward.

“Besides the injury, pain and exhaustion of normal birth, an awkward presentation of the foetus may lead to agonising deathwhile in a society knowing little of hygiene there was high possibility of infection for several weeks afterwards”

May combine two claims.

Infants who appeared sickly, crippled, or deformed were likely to be rejected, as were those beyond the family's capacity to care for.

“Infants which appeared sickly, crippled or deformed were likely to be rejected, and the same applied to those which were more than the family could care for”

• cites Hulsewé 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other abortion recommendations included mercury, which was expensive and extremely dangerous, and physical activities that could go badly wrong.

“Other recommendations included mercury, which is both expensive and extremely dangerous, 45 while physical activities, whether carried out by the woman alone or with a well-meaning assistant, could go badly astray”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even for infants who were accepted, the first years of life saw very high mortality.

“Even for infants which were accepted, the first years of life saw very high mortality”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In pre-modern populations, as many as half of all children may have died before the age of ten.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Abortion was similarly difficult and dangerous.

“Abortion was similarly difficult and dangerous”

May combine two claims.

Dowager Deng's rule was unusual but attracted little comment and less opposition.

“The situation was unusual, but it attracted little comment and less opposition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When the warlord Yuan Shao died in 202 he left his state to his youngest son Yuan Shang, and when Liu Biao died in 208 he passed his inheritance to his younger son Liu Zong.

“when the warlord Yuan Shao 袁 紹 died in 202 he left his state to his youngest son Yuan Shang 尚, and when Liu Biao 劉表 died in 208 he passed his inheritance to his younger son Liu Zong 琮”

May combine two claims.

The vast majority of women recorded in the texts were members of the landed class, nobility, or gentry; the poor were present but seldom played a notable role.

“The vast majority of women recorded in the texts are members of the landed class, nobility or gentry; the poor were always present but seldom played a notable role”

May combine two claims.

Wives were always vulnerable and often suffered for their husbands' wrongdoing.

“but wives were always vulnerable and frequently suffered for their husband's wrongdoing.”

• cites [96]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Lady Dou entered the imperial harem in 77 and became empress the next year.

“in 77 the Lady and a younger sister were admitted to the imperial harem; she was made empress in the following year.”

• cites HHS 10A:416-416Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Lady Dou was fourteen or fifteen when she entered the harem, became empress a few months later, and was still in her teens when she accused the Song sisters.

“Fourteen or fifteen years old when she joined the harem, she became empress a few months later, she was still in her teens when she laid her charge against the Song sisters”

May combine two claims.

Eunuchs are recorded as supervising or serving in the imperial harem, but private households are not mentioned as having them.

“Somewhat surprisingly, though there are many references to eunuchs supervising or serving in the imperial harem, there is no mention of them in private households.”

May combine two claims.

After the Liang family's disgrace, Liu Zhao's true parentage was forgotten and Empress Dou took him as her own son.

“Disgrace was so complete that the true parentage of Liu Zhao was forgotten and the empress took the boy as her own.”

May combine two claims.

Empress Dou persuaded Emperor Zhang that the Ladies Song were guilty of witchcraft, possibly causing her infertility; in 82 they were sent to harem prison and killed themselves.

“she managed to persuade him that the Ladies Song were guilty of witchcraftpossibly that they had caused her infertility.In 82 they were sent to the harem prison and killed themselves.”

May combine two claims.

The imperial harem was much larger than private households, a potential source of power, and a site of fierce conflict involving the emperor, empress, concubines, great families, officials, eunuchs, maidservants, and sometimes slaves.

“Very much larger, it was a potential source of power and thus the scene of frequently fierce conflict involving not only the emperor, his empress and his concubines, but also great families and senior officials, eunuchs and maidservants, sometimes including slaves.”

May combine two claims.

In early 83, Liang Song was accused of treason, tortured, and died in prison; his daughters were killed or killed themselves, and the remaining family was exiled to present-day Vietnam.

“early in 83, just a few months after Liu Zhao's promotion, an anonymous accusation of treason was levied against Liang Song 竦, father of the two concubines: Liang Song was tortured and died in prison; his daughters were either killed or committed suicide, and remaining members of the family were exiled to the furthest south, present-day Vietnam.”

May combine two claims.

Self-managed infertility was impracticable until the mid-twentieth-century contraceptive pill, but it was sought; a fifth-century recipe using burnt silkworm cloth or paper mixed with wine was of doubtful efficacy.

“The first was impracticable until the development of a contraceptive pill in the mid-twentieth century, but it was nonetheless sought for; a recipe of the fifth-century suggested old cloth or paper made from silkworms, burnt to powder and mixed with wineone may doubt its efficacy”

May combine two claims.

Women in a harem were tightly controlled, rarely travelled outside, and were accompanied by guards and maidservants when they did.

“Women in a harem were strictly controlled, seldom travelling abroad and firmly escorted by guards and maidservants when they did.”

May combine two claims.

None of Dowager Deng's male kinsmen held substantial office after 110; full imperial authority was exercised by a woman for ten years.

“Just as noteworthy, none of her male kinsmen held any substantial appointment after 110; full imperial authority was exercised by a woman for ten years.”

May combine two claims.

Cao Cao considered a similar succession move but was persuaded to grant the succession to Cao Pi rather than the younger Cao Zhi, partly to avoid the confusion that had affected his rivals.

“Their successful rival Cao Cao 曹操 considered a similar move, but was persuaded to grant the succession to his son Cao Pi 丕 rather than to the younger Cao Zhi 植; one reason for his decision was to avoid the confusion which had affected his rivals”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

From Emperor He's accession in 88 to Emperor Xian's in 189, every Later Han sovereign came to the throne as a minor and was subject to regency government.

“In that regard, from the accession of Liu Zhao 肇, Emperor He, in 88, to that of Liu Xie 協, Emperor Xian 獻, in 189, every sovereign of Later Han came to the throne as a minor and was subject to regency government.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 88 Emperor Zhang died, and Liu Zhao became Emperor He as a minor under Lady Dou's regency.

“Five years later in 88, Emperor Zhang died and Liu Zhao, to be known as Emperor He, came to the throne as a minor under the regency of the Lady Dou, now Empress-Dowager.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Later Han empresses could be appointed and dismissed at the sovereign's will.

“Empresses could be appointed and dismissed at the will of the sovereign.”

May combine two claims.

A few Later Han consorts came from lower-ranking families, but they received only limited approval and support.

“A few consorts came from families of lower rank, but they received limited approval and support.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On an emperor's death, his widow became empress-dowager.

“When an emperor died, his widow became empress-dowager (皇太后 huang taihou).”

May combine two claims.

The designated Heir did not have to be the empress's biological son; she was considered his formal and titular parent.

“The woman need not be the natural mother of the chosen Heir (太子 taizi)most of them were notbut she was regarded as his formal and titular parent.”

May combine two claims.

Although Emperor An took the Cap of Manhood in 109, he gained no power, and Dowager Deng ruled until her death in 121.

“Though Emperor An took the Cap of Manhood in 109, he gained no power and the dowager ruled until her death in 121.”

May combine two claims.

Dowager Deng rejected Emperor He's elder son as unsuitable for health reasons and appointed the younger; when he died, she passed over the elder brother and brought his cousin Liu You, a boy of thirteen sui, to the throne as Emperor An.

“The Dowager Deng brought them to court, rejected the elder as unsuitable for reasons of health, and appointed the younger.When he died soon afterwards, she again passed over the elder brother and brought his cousin Liu You 劉祐, a boy of thirteen sui, to the throne; his posthumous title would be Emperor An 安.”

• cites HHS 10A:418-430Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

When Dowager Ma died in 79, Empress Dou became formal head of the harem, but after three years she had no child and was diagnosed as barren.

“When the Dowager Ma died in 79, Empress Dou became formal head of the harem, but after three years she had produced no child of her own and was diagnosed as barren.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Coitus interruptus was largely outside the woman's control, and there is no way to judge its frequency at any time or place.

“This was largely out of the woman's control, and there is no way to judge the frequency of such activity at any time or place”

May combine two claims.

In harem conflicts, most secondary actors were adult men, women, and eunuchs, but teenage women often occupied centre stage.

“Furthermore, while most of the secondary participants in such struggles were men, women and eunuchs of full age, centre stage was often taken by young women in their teens.”

May combine two claims.

No other Later Han woman held power as long as Lady Deng, but several played a role in politics.

“Though no other women of Later Han held such power for as long as the Lady Deng, several played a role in politics:”

May combine two claims.

Competition for close access to the emperor was intense and involved intrigue, slander, witchcraft accusations, and occasional murder.

“Even without such a possibility of power, the advantages of intimate access to the emperor were obvious, and it is not surprising there was keen competition, with intrigue and slander, libellous accusations, attempts at witchcraft, and occasional murder.”

May combine two claims.

Below the high ranks, women could hold property and remarry after widowhood or divorce.

“Below those high ranks, women were entitled to hold property and to remarry after widowhood or divorce”

• cites [52]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The tendency to distort is stronger for women because good qualities reflect well on the family and bad behavior serves as a warning to others.

“Where women were concerned, the tendency is yet more powerful, for fine qualities reflect favourably upon the family while bad behaviour provides a warning to others”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A Lienü zhuan attributed to Liu Xiang existed by the late first century BC, and similar works were probably available at the time.

“there was a Lienü zhuan 列女傳 ascribed to Liu Xiang 劉向 of the late first century BC, with similar works very likely extant at the time”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liu Xiang recorded more than a hundred women in seven categories: motherhood, worthy and enlightened, generous and wise, chaste and obedient, virtuous and honourable, clear-thinking and persuasive, and evil favourites.

“Liu Xiang recorded more than a hundred women in seven categories: models of motherhood (母儀 muyi); worthy and enlightened (賢明 xianming); generous and wise (仁智 renzhi); chaste and obedient (貞順 zhenshun); virtuous and honourable (節義 jieyi); clear-thinking and persuasive (辯通 biantong); andnegativelyevil favourites (孽嬖 niebi)”

• cites Kinney 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ban Zhao's Nüjie, composed in the early second century, is an explicit guide to female conduct.

“Nüjie 女誡 (Precepts for Women), composed by Ban Zhao in the early second century, is an explicit guide to female conduct”

• cites HHS 84/74:2786-2792Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swann 1932Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The lessons of these texts are the same: a woman's role is to serve her husband and his family and to sacrifice her own interests, perhaps her life, to their well-being.

“The lessons are the same: a woman's role is to serve her husband and his family, and to sacrifice her own interestsand perhaps her lifeto their well-being”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Accounts of a woman's behavior usually come from her husband's family, which would portray her behavior to its own advantage.

“we usually rely on the husband's family for an account of a woman's behavior, even though they would inevitably portray her behavior to their own advantage”

• cites HinschNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Most information in the histories is distorted: state affairs receive explicit or implicit opinion, and personal biographies often came from private sources selected to emphasize virtues.

“most of the information which we have from the histories is distorted in one way or another: when affairs of state are concerned, historians offer explicit or implicit opinion; at a personal level, much of the material in individual biographies came from private sources, and was often selected to emphasise the subject's virtues”

May combine two claims.

Despite uncertainty, Fan Ye's stories contain an element of truth and give a fair picture of the ideals women were expected to match.

“we may accept there is an element of truth in the stories told by Fan Ye, and we can believe they present a fair picture of the ideals which women of the time were expected to match”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Local and family history texts are liable to exaggeration or hagiography.

“All such texts are liable to exaggeration or hagiography”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ban Zhao refers to an ancient Nüxian, and a number of such works were very likely available at the time.

“Ban Zhao refers also to an ancient Nüxian 女憲 (Pattern for Women), and there were very likely a number of such works available at the time”

• cites HHS 84/74:2790Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swann 1932Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Marriage was well accepted for young women in their early to mid-teens, and with it came the expectation of childbirth.

“So marriage was well accepted for young women in their early to mid-teens; 42 and with that came the expectation of childbirth”

May combine two claims.

The model of an ideal woman was long established; Bohu tong maintained the tradition; and Ban Zhao's exhortations were matched by other Later Han tracts composed by men.

“So the model of an ideal woman was long established, the New Text teachings of Bohu tong 白虎通, record of an imperial conference at the White Tiger Hall in 79, maintained the tradition, 31 and Ban Zhao's exhortations were matched in other tracts of similar title and content composed by men of Later Han”

• cites Tjan 1949Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tjan 1952Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Both sexes were vulnerable to accident, infection, and sickness, including diseases now largely eliminated or no longer fatal.

“Both sexes were vulnerable to accident, infection and sickness, including diseases now largely eliminated or no longer fatal”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The whole argument of Nüjie reinforces women's secondary status.

“the whole argument of Nüjie reinforces this secondary status”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The expected age for menarche is thirteen or fourteen.

“The expected age for menarche is thirteen or fourteen”

May combine two claims.

Bohu tong taught that a man should take the Cap of Manhood at twenty sui and marry at twenty-five or thirty, while women were betrothed at fifteen and married at twenty.

“Bohu tong states that a man should take the Cap of Manhood (加元服 jia yuanfu) at twenty sui and marry at twentyfive or thirty; women were betrothed at fifteen and married at twenty”

• cites Bohu tong 9:1b-2bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tjan 1949Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some women must have experienced pleasure, but for many sex was no more than a chore with pregnancy and danger to follow.

“Some must have experienced pleasure, but for many it can have been no more than a chorewith pregnant consequences and danger to follow”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It is hard to believe Lady Dou was not involved in the destruction of the Liang family.

“it is hard to believe she was not involved in the destruction of the Liang.”

May combine two claims.

In China, polygyny was endorsed by ancient texts, and Bohu tong refers to a ruler or feudal lord wedding nine women at a time.

“In China, however, polygyny was endorsed by ancient texts, and Bohu tong refers to the ruler or a feudal lord wedding nine women at a time”

• cites Bohu tongNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emperor Zhang's choice of Lady Dou may have been an attempt to balance court factions and avoid overcommitting to the Ma-Song group.

“Emperor Zhang's appointment of the Lady Dou may have represented an attempt to balance rival factions at court and avoid too great a commitment to the Ma-Song group.”

May combine two claims.

In civil life, women had only a marginal role in men's public affairs, though they could be affected by others' wrongdoing.

“In civil life, women played only a marginal role in the public affairs of men, but they could be involved through others' misconduct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

For the poor in China, as in the rest of the ancient world, life was hard, food was limited, bodies wore out, and death came early.

“For the poor in China, as in the rest of the ancient world, life was hard, food was limited, bodies wore out, and death came early”

May combine two claims.

Harem politics could be a deadly game, and its players were often very young.

“the politics of the harem could be a deadly game, and the players were often very young.”

May combine two claims.

Coitus interruptus does not appear to have been widely used in classical Greece and Rome and was condemned by Jewish and Christian texts, but there was a well-attested Chinese tradition approving the technique.

“It does not appear to have been widely used in classical Greece and Rome, 50 and it was condemned by Jewish and Christian texts, 51 but there was a well-attested tradition in China which approved the technique”

• cites Hopkins 1965 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Genesis 38:9-10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cao Cao showed little respect for propriety.

“In other respects, however, Cao Cao showed little respect for propriety”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Palace record-keepers gave serious attention to the imperial harem, and their accounts may be accepted as essentially reliable.

“The imperial harem received serious attention from record-keepers at the palace, and we may accept their accounts as essentially reliable.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The palace record-keepers' accounts of the imperial harem are essentially reliable.

May combine two claims.

Although the middle of the menstrual cycle is the most common period for conception, the classical West believed the days immediately after menstruation were most fertile; in China, Dongxuan zi taught that intercourse on the first three days conceived a son and on the fourth or fifth day a daughter.

“Though the middle of the menstrual cycle is the most common period for conception, it was believed in the classical West that the days immediately following the end of menstruation were the most fertile,foot_3 while in China the error was even more detailed: according to Dongxuan zi 洞玄子, a work of the Nanbei chao or Tang, intercourse during the first three days conceived a son; intercourse on the”

• cites Dongxuan ziNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Lady Dou held the emperor's affection and took control of the Heir by age twenty, though she surely had help from palace and kin.

“She surely had assistance within the palace and from kinfolk outside, but it was she who held the affections of the emperor and took control of the Heirand all by the age of twenty.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Relations within a harem were complex, with some women favored for sexual attraction or for children, and ample occasion for jealousy among those contending for the master's attention.

“Relations within a harem must always have been complex, with some women favoured at the expense of others either for their sexual attraction or for the children that they bore, and there was ample occasion for jealousy among those contending for the master's attention”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The practice may have been quite common, at least among those with access to sex manuals that recommended it.

“The practice may have been quite common, at least among those with access to the sex manuals which recommended it”

May combine two claims.

A regent dowager would naturally favour her own family and might let a male relative act for her, but the decision to do so was entirely hers, and she could govern alone.

“the young would naturally favour her own family, and might permit her father or other male relative to act on her behalf, [45] the decision to do so was entirely hers, and she was quite capable of maintaining government on her own.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A wife allowing other women to bear children and then taking control of the child had advantages, whether by accident or design.

“whether by accident or design, there were advantages to the strategy of a wife allowing other women to bear the pains and dangers of birthingthen taking control of the resultant child.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the chief purpose was to strengthen the man, a satisfied woman was thought more likely to provide desirable Yin essence; men who could control themselves probably found it easier to manage marital duties in a harem.

“Though the chief purpose was to strengthen the man, a satisfied woman was thought more likely to provide the desirable essence of Yin;foot_7 and men who could thus control themselves probably found it easier to manage their marital duties in a harem”

May combine two claims.

The kinship degrees and penalties for collective responsibility varied with offence severity, ranging from exile to enslavement, sometimes with branding or tattooing.

“The degrees of kinship involved and the penalties inflicted varied according to the severity of the offence, from exile to enslavement, sometimes with branding or tattooing”

• cites [96]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In theory one wife was regarded as principal and her son as leader of the next generation, but a man could take concubines, even from female slaves, and inheritance could pass to any son the father preferred.

“In theory one was regarded as the principal wife, and her son as the leader of the next generation, but a man could take concubines, even from the ranks of female slaves, 55 and inheritance could pass to any son that the father preferred”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Chinese sexual act was intended to strengthen the man's vitality by absorbing the woman's Yin essence, while the woman derived physical benefit from the stirring of latent Yin nature.

“the sexual act was to strengthen the man's vitality by making him absorb the woman's Yin essence, while at the same time the woman would derive physical benefit from the stirring of the latent Yin nature”

• cites van GulikNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In classical Greece and Rome, followed by Western tradition, marriage was between one man and one woman at a time.

“In classical Greece and Rome, followed by Western tradition, marriage was between a man and a women, one at a time”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Much of harem life was tedious, with gossip, intrigue, jealousy, few chaperoned visitors, and occasional entertainers.

“There was gossip, intrigue and jealousy, perhaps a few visitorssuitably chaperonedand occasional entertainment from visiting dancers and other performers, but much of the life must have been tedious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Li Gao had gone to the lavatory, but his concubine and infant son were present, and Su Buwei killed both.

“Li Gao had left to go to the lavatory, but his concubine and his infant son were there, and Su Buwei killed both of them.”

• cites [98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

This family-centered concern was taught by moralists and was the conduct expected and most commonly praised.

“This was the teaching of the moralists, and this was the conduct which was expected and which was most commonly praised.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Su Buwei and a few followers tunnelled into Li Gao's residence and reached his bedroom.

“Su Buwei and a few followers tunnelled into his enemy's residence and reached the bedroom.”

• cites [98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some people thought Su Buwei had gone too far by killing innocent people.

“Some suggested that Su Buwei had gone too far by killing innocent people”

• cites [98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Anecdotal evidence is always suspect.

“Anecdotal evidence is always suspect”

May combine two claims.

The incidents cited in the paper are too few and perhaps too exaggerated and exceptional to allow substantial conclusions about women's affairs under Later Han.

“the incidents cited above are too few and perhaps too exaggerated and exceptionalto permit any substantial conclusions on the affairs of women under Later Han.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The moralist Guo Tai argued that Su Buwei, by challenging state power, matched the greatest heroes of the past.

“the celebrated moralist Guo Tai 郭泰 argued that in challenging the power of the state he matched the greatest heroes of the past.”

• cites [98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Public opinion agreed with Guo Tai's assessment, and senior ministers invited Su Buwei to office.

“Public opinion agreed with this assessment, and Su Buwei was invited to office by the most senior ministers.”

• cites [98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.