The Ethical Challenges of Socially Responsible Science

“Values may also include epistemic goals, such as knowledge or truth, as well as desired epistemic features of hypotheses, theories, and models, such as empirical support, simplicity, generality, precision, rigor, testability, and explanatory power (Longino, 1990; Kitcher, 2001; Haack, 2003).”

“Since the 1950s, historians (e.g., Kuhn, 1970, 1977), sociologists (e.g., Barnes, 1977; Latour and Woolgar, 1986), and philosophers (e.g., Rudner, 1953; Laudan, 1977; Harding, 1986) have challenged the notion that science is or ought to be value-free by arguing that non-epistemic values can impact…”

“, scientific judgments and decisions are based on evidence and reasoning, not on moral, political, or other values (Longino, 1990; Douglas, 2004).”

“, moral, political, social, or economic) values in scientific judgment and decisionmaking (Longino, 1990; Resnik, 1998, 2007; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011).”

“…may need to address value questions when deciding whether to enter into research contracts with private companies, because companies may seek to impose contractual requirements for research funding that interfere with the free and open exchange of scientific data and information (Resnik, 2007).”

“…operate at a subconscious level, scientists who decide not to include any policy recommendations in their published articles or commentaries may nevertheless unwittingly make value-based assumptions that impact their research design, data analysis, or data interpretation (Elliott and Resnik, 2014).”

“Scientists can honor their obligation to help others by engaging in activities that benefit society, such as research or education (Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).”

“…responsibility to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011;…”

“It would also be wrong to avoid rescuing someone in danger if one could do so with minimal cost to oneself, especially if one had unique skills or training to be of assistance (Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Elliott, 2011).”

“However, scientists who exercise social responsibility can help protect their reputations by openly discussing their value commitments and clearly distinguishing between the scientific evidence related to an issue and their personal opinions (Resnik and Elliott, 2013, 2015).”

“However, scientists who exercise social responsibility can help protect their reputations by openly discussing their value commitments and clearly distinguishing between the scientific evidence related to an issue and their personal opinions (Resnik and Elliott, 2013, 2015).”

“Likewise, value questions arise when deciding whether to conduct classified research on campus because classification imposes restrictions on the sharing of research data and information (Resnik, 2009; Soranno et al., 2014).”

“Agency officials must also decide how to prioritize their research investments among different areas of study (Resnik, 2001, 2009).”

“Researchers who conduct community-based research have formed community advisory boards to help with study design and recruitment and deal with the potential consequences of publication (Resnik and Kennedy, 2010).”

“Some institutions offer research ethics consultation services to help scientists deal with ethical questions related to their work (de Melo-Martin et al., 2007).”

“The journals published the papers shortly after the NSABB made its final recommendation (Resnik, 2013).6 Although most of the public discussion of publication issues has focused on potentially dangerous bioscience research, publication and data sharing issues arise in other areas of science.”

“…to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012;…”

“…implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo…”

“…Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).1 Many professional codes specifically mention duties related to social responsibility in science…”

“…have argued that scientists have a responsibility to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy,…”

“…2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).1 Many professional codes specifically mention duties related to social responsibility…”

“Scientists may also decide to work with public relations officials in deciding how to communicate their research to the public (Watts, 2014).”

“Deciding to ignore the value implications of one’s research would be irresponsible, because behaving responsibly requires one to deal with the implications of one’s conduct (Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2010).”

“Though Needleman was exonerated, he spent a great deal of time and money fighting these allegations (Shrader-Frechette, 2012).”

“The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA in 1974 provides an excellent example of a meeting organized by scientists to reflect on the social implications of their research (Singer, 2001).”

“who exercise this right may face ethical issues related to managing the risk of bias or the perception of bias among their colleagues or the public (Pielke, 2007; Resnik and Elliott, 2016).”

“Our findings suggest that the disciplines undertaking applied research in this field do not generally prioritize explicit consideration of ethical and legal issues in their studies—and, perhaps more broadly, “the moral, political, social and policy issues at stake” [203].”