Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe.

General safety concerns were widely noted, including feeling unsafe collecting water or using sanitation facilities at night, and when toilets lack doors, locks, lighting, or are far; safety issues were particularly intense for adolescent girls, young women, and minorities.

“General safety concerns were widely noted, [100, 119, 123, 139, 143, 147, 171, 177, 182, 186, 188, 191, 201, 202, 223, 226-229, 233, 238, 240, 241, 251, 255, 257] including feeling unsafe collecting water, [100, 119, 177] or using sanitation facilities at night, [168, 171, 190, 229, 255-257] and when toilets lack doors, locks, lighting, or are far [171, 190, 214, 223, 239-241, 252, 255].Safety”

Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs; women openly defecating were particularly vulnerable to non-partner sexual violence compared to those using latrines.

“Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs (_((((xxx))))_)[70, 76, 108, 123, 135, 143, 153, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186-189, 191, 198, 214, 231, 233, 238-240, 255, 258, 259, 261, 265, 268-270] Research from India, [181, 268] Kenya, [269] and Nigeria [70] found women openly defecating were particularly”

All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water.

“All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water (_((((xxx))))_)[61, 62, 76, 86, 89, 101, 110, 111, 123, 135, 143, 144, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 182, 188, 189, 191, 198, 201, 243, 251, 255, 257, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266,”

Women's and girls' bodily integrity has been constrained due to water and sanitation conditions, including limiting bathing and washing, restricting food and water, suppressing defecation and urination urges, delaying changing menstrual materials, and taking anti-diarrheal medicines when lacking sufficient, safe or clean water and sanitation.

“Specifically, women limited bathing and washing hands, clothes, menstrual materials, and bathrooms; [76,86,98,100,123,144,165,197,198,200,202,229,232,281] restricted food and water to avoid defecation and urination; [135, 168, 174, 179, 184, 192, 212, 224] suppressed defecation and urination urges; [2,62,181,184,188,190,191, 214, 217, 229, 235, 236, 238, 241, 247, 248, 250, 270] delayed changing”

Fear of sexual assault was reported to be greatest at night, leading some women to use bags and buckets for sanitation needs; in India, urban settings reported greater fear than rural settings.

“Fear of sexual assault was reported to be greatest at night, [123, 186, 238, 239, 255] leading some women to use bags and buckets for sanitation needs [175, 255, 270].In India, those in urban settings reported greater fear of sexual assault when accessing sanitation than those in rural settings [181,189].”

Women in Nairobi, Kenya who rely on bags, buckets, or open defecation had lower odds of experiencing privacy; household or shared toilets do not always prevent women from being seen or heard while defecating.

“Women in Nairobi, Kenya who rely on bags, buckets, or open defecation had lower odds of experiencing privacy [256].Household or shared toilets do not always prevent women from being seen or heard while defecating [123, 184, 186].”

When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources; constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, desired water quantity, and water treatment methods.

“When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources [65,76,86,118,123,194,199,201,258,292].Constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, [64,86,111,158,170,194,[197][198][199] desired water quantity, [86,192] and water treatment methods [86,111,118,204,293].”

Limited control over assets like carts, bicycles, and wheelbarrows made water collection more time-consuming, or, in sub-Arctic communities where women lack snowmobiles and guns for defense against bears, more dangerous.

“Furthermore, limited control over assets like carts, bicycles, and wheelbarrows made water collection more time-consuming, [98,123,258] or, in sub-Arctic communities where women lack snowmobiles and guns for defense against bears, more dangerous [201].”

When men or boys do collect water, it has been more acceptable when they consider it 'helping' women or use technology-like bicycles, wheelbarrows, or motorcycles.

“When men or boys do collect water, it has been more acceptable when they consider it 'helping' women [261] or use technology-like bicycles, wheelbarrows, or motorcycles-while women and girls are expected to carry water [123, 165, 229, 258, 261].”

Women and girls are expected to carry water.

“When men or boys do collect water, it has been more acceptable when they consider it 'helping' women [261] or use technology-like bicycles, wheelbarrows, or motorcycles-while women and girls are expected to carry water [123, 165, 229, 258, 261].”

Water collection sites could be places of tension and danger, including sexual exploitation, for women and girls in Zimbabwe and Uganda.

“Water collection sites could be places of tension and danger, including sexual exploitation, for women and girls in Zimbabwe [123] and Uganda [165,179].”