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Cited by 94Water Resource Management and QualityGender, Education, and Development IssuesChild Nutrition and Water Access

Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis

Open access
Caruso, Bethany A., Conrad, Amelia, Patrick, Madeleine, Owens, Ajilé, Kviten, Kari, Zarella, Olivia, Rogers, Hannah, Sinharoy, Sheela S.·2022·PLOS Water
DOI 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

Historically, water and sanitation programs have focused on women’s instrumental value in improving conditions and behaviors. No reviews have synthesized evidence on water and sanitation and women’s and girls’ empowerment. This review a) identified empirical water and sanitation research that engaged empowerment and/or empowerment-related domains; b) reported empowerment-related terminology used, research locations, methods leveraged, if water and/or sanitation was the focus; and c) synthesized evidence. A conceptual model of women’s and girls’ empowerment, which includes three interrelated domains (agency, resources, institutional structures), informed the search and analysis. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CABI Global Health, PsycINFO, CINAHL and AGRICOLA for peer-reviewed sources presenting research on water and/or sanitation and either empowerment and/or related terms from the model (4 May 2020). We identified 12,616 publications; 257 were included, representing over 1,600,000 participants. We used the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) and followed the ‘best-fit framework synthesis’ analysis approach, using the model domains and sub-domains as codes. We inductively identified two additional sub-domains relevant to water and sanitation: privacy and freedom of movement. Thematic analysis guided synthesis of coded text. The majority of research took place in Asia (46%; 117) or Africa (40%; 102), engaged adults (69%; 177), and was published since 2010; (82%; 211). The greatest proportion of studies focused on water (45%; 115). Over half of studies used the term empowerment, yet only 7% (17) provided a clear definition or conceptualization. Agency was the least commonly engaged domain (47%; 122); the Resources domain was dominant (94%; 241). Measures for assessing empowerment are limited. Inclusion of only peer-reviewed sources in English is a main limitation. Well-conceptualized water and sanitation research that engages women’s and girls’ empowerment is limited. A more comprehensive ‘transformative WASH’ that includes gender-transformative approaches to challenge and reduce systemic constraints on women’s and girls’ resources and agency is long overdue.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis synthesized 257 peer-reviewed empirical studies on water and/or sanitation and women’s and girls’ empowerment, representing over 1,600,000 participants. It found extensive research on empowerment-related domains but limited clear conceptualization or measurement of empowerment, with the Resources domain dominant and Agency least engaged.

Key findings

  • The review included 257 articles—129 qualitative, 54 quantitative, and 74 mixed methods—representing an estimated 1,600,348 participants; 82% (211) were published since 2010 and 60% (153) since 2015.
  • 52% (133) of articles used “empowerment” or related terms, but only 7% (17) provided a definition or conceptualization of empowerment; 5% (12) had a specific aim or research question focused broadly on empowerment.
  • The Resources domain was most represented (94%; 241 articles), while Agency was least engaged (47%; 122); 70% (181) engaged at least two domains and 44% (113) engaged all three. Two additional subdomains were identified: privacy (Resources) and freedom of movement (Agency).
  • Water was the primary focus in 45% (115) of articles, sanitation in 22% (57), and both in 33% (85); 13% (34) engaged menstruation. Mean study quality was 4.2 overall (qualitative 4.8, quantitative 4.1, mixed methods 3.3; maximum 5).

Methods

  • Systematic review following PRISMA; searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CABI Global Health, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and AGRICOLA on 4 May 2020 for English peer-reviewed sources, supplemented by ancestry/descendancy searches and author-known articles.
  • Eligible studies presented primary or secondary research related to water and/or sanitation and either empowerment or one of the conceptual model’s empowerment domains; all countries, settings, human populations, and study designs were included, with non-English articles excluded.
  • Analysis used the van Eerdewijk et al. conceptual model (agency, resources, institutional structures) and “best-fit framework synthesis”; line-by-line coding was done independently by two team members in MaxQDA, followed by thematic analysis, with quality appraised using the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) 2018.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: inclusion was limited to English peer-reviewed sources, grey literature was excluded, additional databases and broader search terms could have been used, research continued to emerge after the search, other empowerment models exist, menstruation was captured only in the context of water and sanitation research, hygiene was not a focus, and the review was not registered before extraction began.
  • Evident from the text: no studies focused primarily on men or boys, or on transgender or non-binary individuals; most research was from Africa and Asia and focused on adults (69%), limiting geographic and population diversity.
  • Also evident: measures for assessing empowerment are limited, and only one article used a quantitative tool to assess women’s empowerment related to WASH.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026

Cites

288 of 288 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 601 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    12 (5%) articles had a specific aim or research question focused broadly on empowerment.

    “12 (5%) had a specific aim or research question focused broadly on empowerment”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Women experienced constraints on their movement, which impacted their access to water and sanitation resources and to public water and sanitation related activities.

    “Women experienced constraints on their movement, which impacted their access to water and sanitation resources and to public water and sanitation related activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only 17 (7%) articles included a specific definition or conceptualization of empowerment to inform their research.

    “Only 17 (7%) articles included a specific definition or conceptualization of empowerment to inform their research (see Table 2; S5 Table for specific definitions used)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The review inductively identified two additional sub-domains relevant to water and sanitation: privacy and freedom of movement.

    “We inductively identified two additional sub-domains relevant to water and sanitation: privacy and freedom of movement.”
    • Also stated in: § Analysis · plain
      “included two additional codes for empowerment-related subdomains identified iteratively through analysis, thus expanding the existing model: Privacy (Resources domain) and Freedom of Movement (Agency domain)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    No reviews have synthesized evidence on water and sanitation and women's and girls' empowerment.

    “No reviews have synthesized evidence on water and sanitation and women's and girls' empowerment.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “To date there have been no rigorous systematic reviews to assess and synthesize evidence on WASH and women and girls' empowerment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 136
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 32

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The distribution of studies by focus was: 115 (45%) water, 57 (22%) sanitation, 85 (33%) both, and 34 (13%) menstruation.

    “One hundred fifteen (45%) articles focused on water, 57 (22%) on sanitation, 85 (33%) on both; 34 (13%) engaged menstruation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Over half of studies used the term empowerment, yet only 7% (17) provided a clear definition or conceptualization.

    “Over half of studies used the term empowerment, yet only 7% (17) provided a clear definition or conceptualization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and India reported decision-making power over water collection and allocation, though some studies from India found men to make water collection decisions that did not account for women's priorities.

    “Women in Bangladesh, [110] Ethiopia, [108] and India [60] reported decisionmaking power over water collection and allocation, though some studies from India found men to make water collection decisions that did not account for women's priorities [101,119].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [108] EGJ Stevenson, 2012, Water insecurity in 3 dimensions: An anthropological perspective on water and women’s psychosocial distress in Ethiopia., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [60] ME Varua, 2018, Groundwater management and gender inequalities: The case of two watersheds in rural India., Groundw Sustain Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Findingcitation

    In India, the odds of having a latrine was significantly higher in households where women were the main decision makers, and in Kenya, the likelihood of a household owning an improved sanitation facility was significantly higher when women had at least some input on decisions about major household purchases.

    “With respect to sanitation, in India, the odds of having a latrine was significantly higher in households where women were the main decision makers [136] and in Kenya, the likelihood of a household owning an improved sanitation facility was significantly higher when women had at least some input on decisions about major household purchases [134].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [136] YJ Lee, 2017, Informing women and improving sanitation: Evidence from rural India., J Rural Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [134] M Hirai, 2016, Understanding women’s decision making power and its link to improved household sanitation: The case of Kenya., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have varied roles related to intra- and extra-household water and sanitation decision-making, though seem to have the greatest power related to decisions within the household related to water.

    “Women have varied roles related to intra-and extra-household water and sanitation making, though seem to have the greatest power related to decisions within the household related to water.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The review identified 12,616 publications and included 257 articles representing over 1,600,000 participants.

    “We identified 12,616 publications; 257 were included, representing over 1,600,000 participants.”
    • Also stated in: § Included articles · hedged
      “We included 257 articles-129 qualitative, 54 quantitative, and 74 mixed methods-representing an estimated 1,600,348 participants”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The resources domain was the most represented (241 articles; 94%), and agency was the least commonly engaged domain (47%; 122).

    “Agency was the least commonly engaged domain (47%; 122); the Resources domain was dominant (94%; 241).”
    • Also stated in: § Water and sanitation research engaging empowerment and associated domains · plain
      “Of the domains of empowerment, the resources domain was the most represented (241 articles; 94%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A water security study from Nepal reported that some women found individual decision-making stressful and that seeking support from in-laws and husbands was culturally valued.

    “A water security study from Nepal reported that some women found individual decision-making stressful and that seeking support from in-laws and husbands was culturally valued [59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] S Leder, 2017, Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal., Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mean study quality was 4.2 overall, 4.8 for qualitative, 4.1 for quantitative, and 3.3 for mixed methods studies.

    “Mean study quality was 4.2 overall indicating good quality, 4.8 for qualitative studies, 4.1 for quantitative studies, and 3.3 for mixed methods studies (5 is maximum) (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Women reported exercising water and sanitation-related agency, including engagement in decision-making inside and outside the household, formal and informal leadership, and collective action.

    “Women reported exercising water and sanitation-related agency, including engagement in decision-making inside and outside the household, formal and informal leadership, and collective action.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Articles largely featured research from Asia (48%) and Africa (42%), focused on adult participants (69%), and 82% were published since 2010.

    “Articles largely featured research from Asia (48%) and Africa (42%), and focused on adult participants (69%) (Table 2).”
    • Also stated in: § Included articles · plain
      “82% (211) of articles were published since 2010 and 60% (153) since 2015”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    181 (70%) articles engaged at least two of the empowerment domains and 113 (44%) engaged all three.

    “181 (70%) articles engaged at least two of the empowerment domains and 113 (44%) engaged all three ( S2 Fig).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women in Guatemalan savings groups reported having at least equal participation in household WASH decisions, with many reporting greater decision-making power than their husbands.

    “Women in Guatemalan savings groups reported having at least equal participation in household WASH decisions, with many reporting greater decision-making power than their husbands [73].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] K DeVries, 2015, Empowerment in action: Savings groups improving community water, sanitation, and hygiene services., Enterprise Development & Microfinance. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have served as formal and informal leaders in water and sanitation initiatives, resulting in both programmatic benefits and to the women themselves.

    “Women have served as formal and informal leaders in water and sanitation initiatives, resulting in both programmatic benefits and to the women themselves.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    WASH programs have both promoted and discouraged women's voices in WASH-related decision-making processes.

    “WASH programs have both promoted and discouraged women's voices in WASH-related decision-making processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In India, women became a part of decision-making processes in village-level sanitation meetings, water user committees, and other sanitation projects, and men believed women could speak up in meetings and expressed happiness that they could make joint decisions.

    “In India, women became a part of decision-making processes in village-level sanitation meetings, [139] water user committees, [89] and other sanitation projects, [127] and men believed women could speak up in meetings and expressed happiness that they could make joint decisions [145].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [139] G. Pardeshi, 2009, Women in total sanitation campaign: a case study from Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India., J Hum Ecol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [127] C Sijbesma, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In northern Kenya, women were not actively involved in decision-making around water source utilization and their needs were not prioritized.

    “In northern Kenya-where women primarily collect water for domestic use and men for livestock-women were not actively involved in decision-making around water source utilization and their needs were not prioritized [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Findingcitation

    In rural Vanuatu, water user committees with women in key posts met more regularly, functioned better, and collected more revenue than those with only men in these roles.

    “In rural Vanuatu, water user committees with women in key posts met more regularly, functioned better, and collected more revenue than those with only men in these roles [150].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [150] B Mommen, 2017, Does women’s participation in water committees affect management and water system performance in rural Vanuatu., Waterlines source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    WASH programs have increased trust, acceptance, and respect for women as community decision-makers, increased women's roles in household decision-making, and improved women's reported ability to express themselves.

    “WASH programs have increased trust, acceptance, and respect for women as community decision-makers (India [129] and Sri Lanka [56]), increased women's roles in household decision-making (India [139] and Vietnam [58]), and improved women's reported ability to express themselves (Costa Rica [63]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [129] B Baluchova, 2017, The role of implementation and communication of MANTRA Water, sanitation and hygiene program in improving public health in Odisha state (India)., Neuro Endocrinol Lett.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [139] G. Pardeshi, 2009, Women in total sanitation campaign: a case study from Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India., J Hum Ecol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have both participated in and been prevented from a range of extra-household water and sanitation decision-making situations.

    “Women have both participated in and been prevented from a range of extra-household water and sanitation decision-making situations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have voiced opinions about proposed activities and offered suggestions during informal water and sanitation meetings (Egypt), and both men and women noted that women are likely to speak out in public settings and take action on water-related issues given their role as household water managers (Mexico).

    “Women have voiced opinions about proposed activities and offered suggestions during informal water and sanitation meetings (Egypt), [78] and both men and women noted that women are likely to speak out in public settings and take action on water-related issues given their role as household water managers (Mexico) [93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [78] M Assaad, 1994, Involving women in water and sanitation initiatives; an action/research project in an Egyptian village., Water Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [93] MC Ennis-McMillan, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    While quotas have resulted in more women in leadership positions, women remained underrepresented in committees and leadership.

    “Still, while quotas have resulted in more women in leadership positions, [151] women remained underrepresented in committees and leadership [83,102,137].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [151] J Sam, 2020, Women as hand pump technicians: Empowering women and enhancing participation in rural water supply projects., Dev Pract.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] JD Boateng, 2013, Gender and water management practices in Ghana., Journal of Environment and Earth Science

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [102] R Naiga, 2017, Women’s crucial role in collective operation and maintenance of drinking water infrastructure in rural Uganda., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [137] F. Mannan, 2018, Are organizations accountable? Disconnect between gender and sanitation in Bangladesh., Environment and Urbanization Asia source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Trainings, information, and technical knowledge provided to women have contributed to the improvement of communication between men and women and led to women having a voice in household and community decision-making.

    “Trainings, information, and technical knowledge provided to women have contributed to the improvement of communication between men and women and led to women having a voice in household and community decision-making [26,58,75,129].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] C Leahy, 2017, Transforming gender relations through water, sanitation, and hygiene programming and monitoring in Vietnam., Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [75] MC Torri, 2010, Power, structure, gender relations and community-based conservation: The Cawswe Study of the Sariska Region, Rajasthan, India., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [129] B Baluchova, 2017, The role of implementation and communication of MANTRA Water, sanitation and hygiene program in improving public health in Odisha state (India)., Neuro Endocrinol Lett.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Formal positions include leadership on water and sanitation committees; leadership or management of WASH businesses, value chain companies, and organizations; leading community-level projects; and fundraising for and monitoring community-based water and sanitation initiatives.

    “Formal positions include leadership on water and sanitation committees; leadership or management of WASH businesses, value chain companies, and organizations; leading community-level projects; and fundraising for and monitoring community-based water and sanitation initiatives [59, 66, 83, 85, 89, 93, 112, 120, 126, 133, 139, 149, 154].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [59] S Leder, 2017, Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal., Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] N Indarti, 2019, Women’s involvement in economic opportunities in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Indonesia: Examining personal experiences and potential for empowerment., Development Studies Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] JD Boateng, 2013, Gender and water management practices in Ghana., Journal of Environment and Earth Science

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [85] N Carmi, 2019, Empowering women in water diplomacy: A basic mapping of the challenges in Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan., J Hydrol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [93] MC Ennis-McMillan, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [112] C. Tortajada, 2003, Professional women and water management: Case study from Morocco: A Water Forum contribution., Water Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [120] FS Makoni, 2004, Patterns of domestic water use in rural areas of Zimbabwe, gender roles and realities, Phys Chem Earth source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [126] K Scott, 2017, Negotiating power relations, gender equality, and collective agency: Are village health committees transformative social spaces in northern India?, Int J Equity Health.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] M Elledge, 2020, A gender lens into sanitation technology innovation., J Manage Eng source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    WASH programs have inhibited women's decision-making participation by targeting men or reinforcing gender norms.

    “WASH programs also have inhibited women's decisionmaking participation by targeting men [102, 124] or reinforcing gender norms [71,126].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [102] R Naiga, 2017, Women’s crucial role in collective operation and maintenance of drinking water infrastructure in rural Uganda., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [124] P Routray, 2017, Women’s role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [71] TNTP Tam, 2012, Participation of women in rural water supply and sanitation projects: visible or invisible actors? The case of the sub-district of Maubara (Liquiçá, Timor-Leste)., International Journal of Multidisciplinary Thought

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [126] K Scott, 2017, Negotiating power relations, gender equality, and collective agency: Are village health committees transformative social spaces in northern India?, Int J Equity Health.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In India, women were included in public forums because they are responsible for children's health, while men were involved because they could demand improvements and travel outside the village.

    “In India, women were included in public forums because they are responsible for children's health, while men were involved because they could demand improvements and travel outside the village [126].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126] K Scott, 2017, Negotiating power relations, gender equality, and collective agency: Are village health committees transformative social spaces in northern India?, Int J Equity Health.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women play increasingly greater roles in water committees in rural Malawi, but they remain dominated by men in urban areas.

    “Women play increasingly greater roles in water committees in rural Malawi, but they remain dominated by men in urban areas [86].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86] L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have described benefits of and preference for water and sanitation activities that require leaving the home, yet many also reported restrictions on movement and therefore their access to basic water and sanitation needs.

    “Women have described benefits of and preference for water and sanitation activities that require leaving the home, yet many also reported restrictions on movement and therefore their access to basic water and sanitation needs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women's and girls' bodily integrity has been constrained due to water and sanitation conditions, including limiting bathing and washing, restricting food and water, suppressing defecation and urination urges, delaying changing menstrual materials, and taking anti-diarrheal medicines when lacking sufficient, safe or clean water and sanitation.

    “Specifically, women limited bathing and washing hands, clothes, menstrual materials, and bathrooms; [76,86,98,100,123,144,165,197,198,200,202,229,232,281] restricted food and water to avoid defecation and urination; [135, 168, 174, 179, 184, 192, 212, 224] suppressed defecation and urination urges; [2,62,181,184,188,190,191, 214, 217, 229, 235, 236, 238, 241, 247, 248, 250, 270] delayed changing”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [98] CG Mandara, 2013, Does women’s representation in local water management lead to better meeting women’s domestic water needs?, International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [100] LR Mason, 2012, Gender and asset dimensions of seasonal water insecurity in urban Philippines., Weather Clim Soc source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [144] J Varickanickal, 2019, Water risk perceptions across the life-course of women in Kenya., Health Prom Int.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [165] RC Mushavi, 2020, “When you have no water, it means you have no peace”: A mixed-methods, whole-population study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [197] JF Chew, 2019, Water source preferences and water quality perceptions among women in the eastern region, Ghana: a grounded theory study., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [198] SM Collins, 2019, "I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [200] B Crow, 2010, Access to water in a Nairobi slum: Women’s work and institutional learning., Water Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Women's control over resources, notably financial and productive assets, social capital, and time, influence their access to water and sanitation and, conversely, water and sanitation conditions influence women's access to and control over resources.

    “Further, women's control over resources, notably financial and productive assets, social capital, and time, influence their access to water and sanitation and, conversely, water and sanitation conditions influence women's access to and control over resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have organized to form lending groups to support women-led WASH businesses, provide community education about water safety, monitor open defecation, and respond to sanitation-related harassment.

    “Women have organized to form lending groups to support women-led WASH businesses, [66] provide community education about water safety, [56, 61, 73, 78, 89, 91, 125, 129, 163, 165, 168, 169, 193, 296] monitor open defecation, [145] and respond to sanitation-related harassment.[174]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [66] N Indarti, 2019, Women’s involvement in economic opportunities in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Indonesia: Examining personal experiences and potential for empowerment., Development Studies Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [73] K DeVries, 2015, Empowerment in action: Savings groups improving community water, sanitation, and hygiene services., Enterprise Development & Microfinance. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [78] M Assaad, 1994, Involving women in water and sanitation initiatives; an action/research project in an Egyptian village., Water Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [91] VV Devasia, 1998, Tribal women in sustainable development through watershed programmes in Vidarbha., Int J Water Resour Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [125] K Scott, 2017, Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India., PLoS One. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [129] B Baluchova, 2017, The role of implementation and communication of MANTRA Water, sanitation and hygiene program in improving public health in Odisha state (India)., Neuro Endocrinol Lett.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [163] MC Ennis‐McMillan, 2001, Suffering from water: social origins of bodily distress in a Mexican community., Med Anthropol Q source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Movement restrictions influenced women and girls' access to water and defecation, urination, and menstrual management locations, and are most widely reported in India.

    “Movement restrictions influenced women and girls' access to water [101, 110, 178] and defecation, urination, and menstrual management locations, and are most widely reported in India [62, 135, 174, 181, 182, 184, 187], [101,110,187,[189][190][191].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [101] PK Mehta, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [178] ER MacRae, 2019, ’It’s like a burden on the head’: Redefining adequate menstrual hygiene management throughout women’s varied life stages in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [181] KRS Hulland, 2015, Sanitation, stress, and life stage: A systematic data collection study among women in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Family members (often husbands, fathers, and in-laws) restricted water fetching and sanitation-related movements, most intensely for unmarried daughters and recently married and pregnant women, less intensely for women of lower castes and widows.

    “Research in India found that family members (often husbands, fathers, and in-laws) restricted water fetching and sanitation-related movements, most intensely for unmarried daughters [174,182,190] and recently married and pregnant women, [178, 182, 189] (less intensely for women of lower castes [135] and widows [174]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [190] KK Singh, 2019, Understanding women’s access to sanitation: A study of the slums in Delhi., Journal of Social Inclusion Studies source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [178] ER MacRae, 2019, ’It’s like a burden on the head’: Redefining adequate menstrual hygiene management throughout women’s varied life stages in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women in India experienced in development projects reported more spatial mobility and were more likely to participate in water committees.

    “Women in India experienced in development projects reported more spatial mobility and were more likely to participate in water committees.[89]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women's involvement in WASH-related collective action has led to sustained involvement in water and sanitation issues as well as collective action around non-WASH issues, and also has encouraged respect from community members, including men.

    “Women's involvement in WASH-related collective action has led to sustained involvement in water and sanitation issues [89,163] as well as collective action around non-WASH issues, [56,126,145] and also has encouraged respect from community members, including men [26,56,89,166].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [163] MC Ennis‐McMillan, 2001, Suffering from water: social origins of bodily distress in a Mexican community., Med Anthropol Q source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [126] K Scott, 2017, Negotiating power relations, gender equality, and collective agency: Are village health committees transformative social spaces in northern India?, Int J Equity Health.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [145] G von Medeazza, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [166] SS Nerkar, 2013, Improvement in health and empowerment of families as a result of watershed management in a tribal area in India-a qualitative study., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Families have built latrines specifically to restrict movement, though women do not always have access when needed if situated in spaces controlled by men.

    “Families have built latrines specifically to restrict movement, [62,174] though women do not always have access when needed if situated in spaces controlled by men [62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Restricted movement has limited women's access to training opportunities and therefore engagement in piped water enterprises and posed barriers to women's WASH businesses.

    “Restricted movement has limited women's access to training opportunities and therefore engagement in piped water enterprises (Cambodia [30]), and has posed barriers to women's WASH businesses (Indonesia [66]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [30] M Grant, 2019, Rural piped-water enterprises in Cambodia: A pathway to women’s empowerment?, Water source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] N Indarti, 2019, Women’s involvement in economic opportunities in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Indonesia: Examining personal experiences and potential for empowerment., Development Studies Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    One program in India intentionally aimed to enhance mobility by engaging women in sanitation promotion outside the home; yet, the very latrines promoted were found to increase women's confinement.

    “One program (India) intentionally aimed to enhance mobility by engaging women in sanitation promotion outside the home; yet, the very latrines promoted were found to increase women's confinement [62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Water and sanitation circumstances and conditions contribute to the deprivation of resources, particularly to bodily integrity, which includes health, safety and security, and privacy.

    “As described in the sections that follow, water and sanitation circumstances and conditions contribute to the deprivation of resources, particularly to bodily integrity, which includes health, safety and security, and privacy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Almost all articles documenting physical violence from interpersonal conflicts focused on water, including intrahousehold conflicts and beatings due to participation in water supply projects, abuse from mothers-in-law over water collection, quarrels while waiting in water queues, and beatings by school janitors over unclean toilets.

    “Almost all articles documenting physical violence from interpersonal conflicts focused on water [89,110,198,243,258]. Women in India experienced intrahousehold conflicts and beatings due to participation in a water supply project; [89] young women in Bangladesh, especially new brides, suffered verbal and physical abuse from mothers-in-law when they failed to collect water quickly or did not”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [198] SM Collins, 2019, "I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [243] C Girod, 2017, Physical, social, and political inequities constraining girls’ menstrual management at schools in informal settlements of Nairobi, Kenya., J Urban Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [258] RB Asaba, 2013, Beyond distance and time: Gender and the burden of water collection in rural Uganda., wH2O: Journal of Gender and Water.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    General safety concerns were widely noted, including feeling unsafe collecting water or using sanitation facilities at night, and when toilets lack doors, locks, lighting, or are far; safety issues were particularly intense for adolescent girls, young women, and minorities.

    “General safety concerns were widely noted, [100, 119, 123, 139, 143, 147, 171, 177, 182, 186, 188, 191, 201, 202, 223, 226-229, 233, 238, 240, 241, 251, 255, 257] including feeling unsafe collecting water, [100, 119, 177] or using sanitation facilities at night, [168, 171, 190, 229, 255-257] and when toilets lack doors, locks, lighting, or are far [171, 190, 214, 223, 239-241, 252, 255].Safety”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [100] LR Mason, 2012, Gender and asset dimensions of seasonal water insecurity in urban Philippines., Weather Clim Soc source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [119] N. Jha, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [139] G. Pardeshi, 2009, Women in total sanitation campaign: a case study from Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India., J Hum Ecol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [143] W Thuita, 2017, The role of marginalised women in sanitation initiatives: Somali women in northern Kenya., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [147] SC Winter, 2019, Not just any toilet–women’s solutions to sanitation in informal settlements in Nairobi., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [171] J Belur, 2017, Perceptions of gender-based violence around public toilets in Mumbai slums., Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water.

    “All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water (_((((xxx))))_)[61, 62, 76, 86, 89, 101, 110, 111, 123, 135, 143, 144, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 182, 188, 189, 191, 198, 201, 243, 251, 255, 257, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [101] PK Mehta, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [111] NV Thai, 2019, Women and water management: A policy assessment—A case study in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam., Asia Pac J Rural Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    General and sexual harassment are more frequently observed/documented in sanitation than water research.

    “General harassment, including taunting, teasing, name calling, and throwing things at women or girls is more frequently observed in sanitation [138, 168, 174, 175, 181, 187, 190, 263] than water research [168,199] Sexual harassment, including verbal harassment, peeping, flashing, and male masturbation is also more frequently documented in sanitation [171-174, 189, 190, 214, 217, 226, 231, 233]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [138] A. Mohankumar, 2015, Narrating the Stench Testimonies of Women Engaged in Manual Scavenging in Udaipur, Rajasthan., Indian Journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [168] M Bapat, 2003, Our needs, our priorities; women and men from the slums in Mumbai and Pune talk about their needs for water and sanitation., Environ Urban. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] T Shiras, 2018, Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: Exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [181] KRS Hulland, 2015, Sanitation, stress, and life stage: A systematic data collection study among women in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [190] KK Singh, 2019, Understanding women’s access to sanitation: A study of the slums in Delhi., Journal of Social Inclusion Studies source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [263] S Adriaenssens, 2019, “Bad jobs”: a case study of toilet attendants., Employee Relations: The International Journal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [199] B Crow, 2002, Gender, class, and access to water: Three cases in a poor and crowded delta., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [171] J Belur, 2017, Perceptions of gender-based violence around public toilets in Mumbai slums., Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Inadequate water provision and collection behaviors were reported to influence intimate partner violence, including violence from husbands for not providing water for bathing, not having water in the home, going to cleaner water sources considered too far, not preparing food on time, or attending water-focused community meetings.

    “Inadequate water provision and collection behaviors were reported to influence intimate partner violence [26,75,101,108,111,153,165,179,198,231,260,264,266].Women reported violence from husbands if they did not provide water for bathing needs (Kenya, [198] Ethiopia, [108] Vietnam, [111] Cameroon [231]), did not have water in the home (East Africa [179]), went to cleaner water sources considered”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [75] MC Torri, 2010, Power, structure, gender relations and community-based conservation: The Cawswe Study of the Sariska Region, Rajasthan, India., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [101] PK Mehta, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [108] EGJ Stevenson, 2012, Water insecurity in 3 dimensions: An anthropological perspective on water and women’s psychosocial distress in Ethiopia., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [111] NV Thai, 2019, Women and water management: A policy assessment—A case study in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam., Asia Pac J Rural Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [153] E. Van Houweling, 2016, “A good wife brings her husband bath water”: Gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [165] RC Mushavi, 2020, “When you have no water, it means you have no peace”: A mixed-methods, whole-population study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [179] M Pommells, 2018, Gender violence as a water, sanitation, and hygiene risk: Uncovering violence against women and girls as it pertains to poor WaSH access., Violence Against Women source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [198] SM Collins, 2019, "I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [231] JA Thompson, 2017, Embodied intersections: Gender, water and sanitation in Cameroon., Agenda source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs; women openly defecating were particularly vulnerable to non-partner sexual violence compared to those using latrines.

    “Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs (_((((xxx))))_)[70, 76, 108, 123, 135, 143, 153, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186-189, 191, 198, 214, 231, 233, 238-240, 255, 258, 259, 261, 265, 268-270] Research from India, [181, 268] Kenya, [269] and Nigeria [70] found women openly defecating were particularly”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [70] CA Oluyemo, 2012, Women’s empowerment as determinant for maintanance and sustainability of portable water and sanitation facilities in Ekiti State, Nigeria., International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [108] EGJ Stevenson, 2012, Water insecurity in 3 dimensions: An anthropological perspective on water and women’s psychosocial distress in Ethiopia., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [143] W Thuita, 2017, The role of marginalised women in sanitation initiatives: Somali women in northern Kenya., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [153] E. Van Houweling, 2016, “A good wife brings her husband bath water”: Gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [171] J Belur, 2017, Perceptions of gender-based violence around public toilets in Mumbai slums., Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] N. Joshi, 2018, Low-income women’s right to sanitation services in city public spaces: A study of waste picker women in Pune., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women and girls feared, risked, or experienced varied harms related to their water and sanitation circumstances and activities, with water fetching related harms in particular resulting in serious and long-term consequences, including general and localized pain, headaches and head injury, and injury from falls, trucks, and/or car accidents.

    “Women and girls feared, risked, or experienced, varied harms related to their water and sanitation circumstances and activities (_((((xxx))))_)[62, 63, 78, 90, 101, 135, 141, 143, 144, 158, 168-170, 172-174, 177-179, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 189-191, 197-199, 201, 214, 226, 231, 244, 257, 258, 261, 276, 277, 296].Many noted exacerbated”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] L. Aguilar

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [78] M Assaad, 1994, Involving women in water and sanitation initiatives; an action/research project in an Egyptian village., Water Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [90] L. Devasia, 1998, Safe drinking water and its acquisition: Rural women’s participation in water management in Maharashtra, India., Int J Water Resour Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [101] PK Mehta, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [141] M. Shahid, 2015, Manual scavenging: Issues of caste, culture and violence., Soc Change. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [143] W Thuita, 2017, The role of marginalised women in sanitation initiatives: Somali women in northern Kenya., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [144] J Varickanickal, 2019, Water risk perceptions across the life-course of women in Kenya., Health Prom Int.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [158] Acey C. Gender, 2010, community mobilisation for urban water infrastructure investment in southern Nigeria, Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Studies in Cambodia and India have observed associations between women's access to sanitation facilities and body mass index (BMI); studies have also examined associations between sanitation or water and anemia.

    “Studies in Cambodia [290] and India [248] have observed associations between women's access to sanitation facilities and body mass index (BMI).Studies have also examined associations between sanitation (Cambodia [290]) or water (Uganda [278]) and anemia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [290] A Janmohamed, 2016, Improved sanitation facilities are associated with higher body mass index and higher hemoglobin concentration among rural Cambodian women in the first trimester of pregnancy, Am J Trop Med Hyg source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [248] A Nagpal, 2019, Missing basics: A study on sanitation and women’s health in urban slums in Lucknow, India., GeoJournal.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [278] O Nankinga, 2019, Determinants of anemia among women in Uganda: Further analysis of the Uganda demographic and health surveys., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    When interventions improved water availability or treatment, women reported experiencing fewer vaginal infections and seeing fewer illnesses in their families.

    “When interventions improved water availability or treatment, women reported experiencing fewer vaginal infections [63] and seeing fewer illnesses in their families [81,208].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [63] L. Aguilar

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] B Bhandari, 2009, Strategic gender needs: the missing element in water supply projects of Nepal., J Rural Dev.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [208] S Wood, 2012, Understanding why women adopt and sustain home water treatment: insights from the Malawi antenatal care program., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women qualitatively reported perceived linkages between various illnesses and their water and sanitation environments, including diarrhea, vomiting, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, and skin diseases due to polluted water, and diarrhea due to limitations on hygiene in times of water scarcity.

    “Women reported experiencing or fearing diarrhea, vomiting, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, and skin diseases due to polluted water, [65,70,86,111,144,177,178,197,199,214,220,225,231,248,259,273,288] and experiencing diarrhea due to limitations on hygiene in times of water scarcity [70,123,202].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [65] S Gabrielsson, 2013, Widows: Agents of change in a climate of water uncertainty., J Clean Prod source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [70] CA Oluyemo, 2012, Women’s empowerment as determinant for maintanance and sustainability of portable water and sanitation facilities in Ekiti State, Nigeria., International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [111] NV Thai, 2019, Women and water management: A policy assessment—A case study in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam., Asia Pac J Rural Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [144] J Varickanickal, 2019, Water risk perceptions across the life-course of women in Kenya., Health Prom Int.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [178] ER MacRae, 2019, ’It’s like a burden on the head’: Redefining adequate menstrual hygiene management throughout women’s varied life stages in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [197] JF Chew, 2019, Water source preferences and water quality perceptions among women in the eastern region, Ghana: a grounded theory study., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [199] B Crow, 2002, Gender, class, and access to water: Three cases in a poor and crowded delta., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [214] A Datta, 2020, Intimate infrastructures: The rubrics of gendered safety and urban violence in Kerala, India., Geoforum source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Related to water, walking long distances and collecting from certain sources reportedly exposed women and girls to sexual violence, particularly as men studied women's patterns.

    “Related to water, walking long distances and collecting from certain sources reportedly exposed women and girls to sexual violence, [76,153,179,231,258,259] particularly as men studied women's patterns [179].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [153] E. Van Houweling, 2016, “A good wife brings her husband bath water”: Gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [179] M Pommells, 2018, Gender violence as a water, sanitation, and hygiene risk: Uncovering violence against women and girls as it pertains to poor WaSH access., Violence Against Women source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [231] JA Thompson, 2017, Embodied intersections: Gender, water and sanitation in Cameroon., Agenda source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [258] RB Asaba, 2013, Beyond distance and time: Gender and the burden of water collection in rural Uganda., wH2O: Journal of Gender and Water.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [259] LN Fonjong, 2014, Challenges of water crisis on women’s socio-economic activities in the Buea Municipality, Cameroon., Journal of Geography and Geology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women reported different health concerns, mostly negative, based on life stage and circumstance, including pregnant women's fears related to sanitation-related superstitions, stress about accessing sanitation sites for women with trouble controlling urination or defecation, lower odds of good health for women reliant on bags, buckets, or open defecation, and difficulty/pain defecating and urin

    “Women reported different health concerns, mostly negative, based on life stage and circumstance.Notably, pregnant women expressed health fears related to sanitationrelated superstitions (India [184, 189]), women with trouble controlling urination or defecation stressed about accessing sanitation sites (India [2]), women reliant on bags, buckets, or open defecation had substantially lower odds of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] BA Caruso, 2018, The association between women’s sanitation experiences and mental health: A cross-sectional study in Rural, Odisha India., SSM Popul Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [256] SC Winter, 2019, Women’s sanitation practices in informal settlements: A multi-level analysis of factors influencing utilisation in Nairobi, Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Fear of sexual assault was reported to be greatest at night, leading some women to use bags and buckets for sanitation needs; in India, urban settings reported greater fear than rural settings.

    “Fear of sexual assault was reported to be greatest at night, [123, 186, 238, 239, 255] leading some women to use bags and buckets for sanitation needs [175, 255, 270].In India, those in urban settings reported greater fear of sexual assault when accessing sanitation than those in rural settings [181,189].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [238] BA Caruso, 2017, Assessing women’s negative sanitation experiences and concerns: the development of a novel sanitation insecurity measure, Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [239] J Corburn, 2015, Slum sanitation and the social determinants of women’s health in Nairobi, Kenya., J Environ Public Health. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [255] SC Winter, 2019, Neighborhood disorganization and women’s sanitation utilization practices in Mathare Valley, Kenya., Environ Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] T Shiras, 2018, Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: Exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [270] SC Winter, 2019, A mixed-methods study of women’s sanitation utilization in informal settlements in Kenya., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [181] KRS Hulland, 2015, Sanitation, stress, and life stage: A systematic data collection study among women in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Nepal, having intermediate and low water access was associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels in women, while men's blood pressure was not statistically different; elevated levels of blood pressure were highest for women with the least water access.

    “In Nepal, having intermediate and low water access was associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels in women, while men's blood pressure was not statistically different; elevated levels of blood pressure were highest for women with the least water access [272].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [272] A Brewis, 2019, Low water access as a gendered physiological stressor: Blood pressure evidence from Nepal, Am J Hum Biol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Fears or experiences of harm from domestic and wild animals and insects were reported for both water collection and sanitation activities; women and girls reported fear and actual experiences of injury at and when accessing sanitation locations, regardless of sanitation type.

    “Fears or experiences of harm from domestic and wild animals and insects were reported for both water collection and sanitation activities [62, 135, 143, 170, 172-174, 177-179, 184, 187, 189-191, 198, 201, 214, 226, 229, 257, 258, 296].Women and girls reported fear and actual experiences of injury at and when accessing sanitation locations, regardless of sanitation type [135, 168, 172, 174, 184, 18”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [62] K. O’Reilly, 2010, Combining sanitation and women’s participation in water supply: An example from Rajasthan., Dev Pract source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [143] W Thuita, 2017, The role of marginalised women in sanitation initiatives: Somali women in northern Kenya., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [170] E Bisung, 2016, ‘Everyone is exhausted and frustrated’: Exploring psychosocial impacts of the lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation in Usoma, Kenya., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [172] S Hirve, 2015, Psychosocial stress associated with sanitation practices: Experiences of women in a rural community in India., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] N. Joshi, 2018, Low-income women’s right to sanitation services in city public spaces: A study of waste picker women in Pune., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [178] ER MacRae, 2019, ’It’s like a burden on the head’: Redefining adequate menstrual hygiene management throughout women’s varied life stages in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [179] M Pommells, 2018, Gender violence as a water, sanitation, and hygiene risk: Uncovering violence against women and girls as it pertains to poor WaSH access., Violence Against Women source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women in Nairobi, Kenya who rely on bags, buckets, or open defecation had lower odds of experiencing privacy; household or shared toilets do not always prevent women from being seen or heard while defecating.

    “Women in Nairobi, Kenya who rely on bags, buckets, or open defecation had lower odds of experiencing privacy [256].Household or shared toilets do not always prevent women from being seen or heard while defecating [123, 184, 186].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [256] SC Winter, 2019, Women’s sanitation practices in informal settlements: A multi-level analysis of factors influencing utilisation in Nairobi, Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Mozambique, newly constructed handpumps provided women with easier, more reliable water access, but made achieving privacy for bathing and menstrual hygiene more difficult than at sources like rivers.

    “In Mozambique, newly constructed handpumps provided women with easier, more reliable water access, but made achieving privacy for bathing and menstrual hygiene more difficult than at sources like rivers [261].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [261] E. Van Houweling, 2015, Gendered water spaces: A study of the transition from wells to handpumps in Mozambique., Gender, Place & Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Privacy of household and shared latrines is compromised by broken or missing doors, missing locks, and poor construction; women worried about being seen walking to latrines, waiting in queues, having others hear or smell their activity, or the proximity of latrines to houses, main roads, or public spaces.

    “Privacy of household and shared latrines is compromised by broken [189] or missing doors, [184, 248] missing locks, [175,191,248,251] and poor construction [175,191,240,251].Furthermore, women worried about being seen walking to latrines; [189, 227] waiting in queues; [130] having others hear or smell their activity; [175] or the proximity of latrines to houses, main roads, or public spaces [69,1”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [248] A Nagpal, 2019, Missing basics: A study on sanitation and women’s health in urban slums in Lucknow, India., GeoJournal.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] T Shiras, 2018, Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: Exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [191] SC Winter, 2018, Drivers of women’s sanitation practices in informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa: A qualitative study in Mathare Valley, Kenya, Int J Environ Health Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [251] F Scorgie, 2016, “Bitten by shyness”: Menstrual hygiene management, sanitation, and the quest for privacy in South Africa., Med Anthropol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women reported spending money to access water sources with shorter wait times or higher quality, or to compensate male neighbors, laborers, or drivers for water collection; water was a major expense for many women.

    “Women reported spending money to access water sources with shorter wait times [61,198] or higher quality, [98,198] or to compensate male neighbors, laborers, or drivers for water collection [165,201].Water was a major expense for many women [65,86,111,198,200,292].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [198] SM Collins, 2019, "I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [98] CG Mandara, 2013, Does women’s representation in local water management lead to better meeting women’s domestic water needs?, International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [165] RC Mushavi, 2020, “When you have no water, it means you have no peace”: A mixed-methods, whole-population study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [201] M Hanrahan, 2019, Gender and water insecurity in a subarctic Indigenous community., Can Geogr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Improved self-confidence, including willingness to speak up, was reported regarding women's participation in WASH programs and campaigns in India, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam; women in India reported improvements in self-confidence, dignity, and work and life circumstances due to improvements in water supply; and in Indonesia, some women reported feeling confident to challenge traditional gender roles

    “Improved self-confidence, including willingness to speak up, was reported regarding women's participation in WASH programs and campaigns in India, [89,139,145] Sri Lanka, [56] and Vietnam [58].Women in India reported improvements in self-confidence, dignity, and work and life circumstances due to improvements in water supply [129,279].In Indonesia, some women reported feeling confident to”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [139] G. Pardeshi, 2009, Women in total sanitation campaign: a case study from Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India., J Hum Ecol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [145] G von Medeazza, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] C Leahy, 2017, Transforming gender relations through water, sanitation, and hygiene programming and monitoring in Vietnam., Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women's access to assets has influenced their water and sanitation access and ability to engage in water and sanitation initiatives; water and sanitation have influenced women's income generation and financial assets.

    “Women's access to assets has influence their water and sanitation access and ability to engage in water and sanitation initiatives.Further, water and sanitation have influenced women's income generation and financial assets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources; constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, desired water quantity, and water treatment methods.

    “When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources [65,76,86,118,123,194,199,201,258,292].Constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, [64,86,111,158,170,194,[197][198][199] desired water quantity, [86,192] and water treatment methods [86,111,118,204,293].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [65] S Gabrielsson, 2013, Widows: Agents of change in a climate of water uncertainty., J Clean Prod source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [118] SJ Halvorson, 2004, Women’s management of the household health environment: Responding to childhood diarrhea in the Northern Areas, Pakistan., Health Place source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [194] FS Arku, 2010, Time savings from easy access to clean water: Implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being., Prog Dev Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [199] B Crow, 2002, Gender, class, and access to water: Three cases in a poor and crowded delta., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [201] M Hanrahan, 2019, Gender and water insecurity in a subarctic Indigenous community., Can Geogr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [258] RB Asaba, 2013, Beyond distance and time: Gender and the burden of water collection in rural Uganda., wH2O: Journal of Gender and Water.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [292] GO Boateng, 2018, A novel household water insecurity scale: Procedures and psychometric analysis among postpartum women in western Kenya., PLoS One. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Sanitation facilities often enable privacy, though privacy can be challenging to obtain for those without sanitation facilities and for some using household or shared facilities; in India, women with latrines reported a greater sense of privacy, and adolescent girls and women found latrines useful for privacy during menstruation and defecation.

    “Sanitation facilities often enable privacy, though privacy can be challenging to obtain for those without sanitation facilities and for some using household or shared facilities.In India, women with latrines reported a greater sense of privacy, [139] and adolescent girls and women found latrines particularly useful for maintaining privacy during menstruation and defecation, especially during the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [139] G. Pardeshi, 2009, Women in total sanitation campaign: a case study from Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India., J Hum Ecol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [222] R Nalugya, 2020, Assessing the effectiveness of a comprehensive menstrual health intervention program in Ugandan schools (MENISCUS): Process evaluation of a pilot intervention study., Pilot Feasibility Stud

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women coped with sanitation stressors by seeking social support, withholding food or drink, or changing the timing of sanitation behaviors, though adaptations could also cause stress.

    “Women coped with sanitation stressors by seeking social support, withholding food or drink, or changing the timing of sanitation behaviors, though adaptations could also cause stress [168, 177, 184, 189].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [168] M Bapat, 2003, Our needs, our priorities; women and men from the slums in Mumbai and Pune talk about their needs for water and sanitation., Environ Urban. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Findingcitation

    Awareness of their unequal position in society was reported to influence how women approached resolving water issues in Sri Lanka and Mexico, and sanitation issues in India.

    “Awareness of their unequal position in society was reported to influence how women approached resolving water issues in Sri Lanka [56] and Mexico, [163] and sanitation issues in India [145].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [163] MC Ennis‐McMillan, 2001, Suffering from water: social origins of bodily distress in a Mexican community., Med Anthropol Q source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [145] G von Medeazza, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Access to sanitation facilities was associated with mental well-being; ownership of functional household latrines and enclosed bathing spaces were significantly associated with well-being among women in rural India; toilet access in Kenya was associated with better mental health and well-being; women who received latrines in Mozambique reported decreased stress; and women in India reported private

    “Access to sanitation facilities was associated with mental well-being.Ownership of functional household latrines and enclosed bathing spaces were significantly associated with well-being among women in rural India [2].Toilet access in Kenya was associated with better mental health and well-being among women [289].Women who received latrines in Mozambique reported that they decreased their stress,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [2] BA Caruso, 2018, The association between women’s sanitation experiences and mental health: A cross-sectional study in Rural, Odisha India., SSM Popul Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [289] SC Winter, 2019, Environmental correlates of health-related quality of life among women living in informal settlements in Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] T Shiras, 2018, Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: Exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women reported myriad sanitation-related stressors, including fear of being attacked by men or ghosts, being shamed for using open defecation sites, suppressing urination or defecation, withholding food and water, needing help to meet sanitation needs, being hurried while using shared facilities, sanitation-related costs, and lacking privacy or being seen by others, especially men, while openly

    “Women reported myriad sanitation-related stressors, including fear of being attacked by men or ghosts, [177, 181, 184, 189, 229, 238] being shamed for using open defecation sites, [172] suppressing urination or defecation, [184] withholding food and water, [184] needing help to meet sanitation needs, [184] being hurried while using shared facilities, [168, 185, 188] sanitation-related costs, [170,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [181] KRS Hulland, 2015, Sanitation, stress, and life stage: A systematic data collection study among women in Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [229] BB Silva, 2020, Water and sanitation are not gender-neutral: Human rights in rural Brazilian communities., Water Policy. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [238] BA Caruso, 2017, Assessing women’s negative sanitation experiences and concerns: the development of a novel sanitation insecurity measure, Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [172] S Hirve, 2015, Psychosocial stress associated with sanitation practices: Experiences of women in a rural community in India., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have faced difficulties accessing government subsidies or loans large enough for latrine construction and reported willingness to make financial sacrifices, like paying higher rent or accepting a lower wage job, to gain toilet access; in India, even women with economic and decision-making power could not build latrines without land ownership.

    “Women have faced difficulties accessing government subsidies [125, 135] or loans large enough for latrine construction [131] and reported willingness to make financial sacrifices, like paying higher rent [191] or accepting a lower wage job, [174,217] to gain toilet access.In India, even women with economic and decision-making power could not build latrines without land ownership [124,187,190].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [125] K Scott, 2017, Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India., PLoS One. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [131] A Czerniewska, 2019, Theory-driven formative research to inform the design of a national sanitation campaign in Tanzania., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [191] SC Winter, 2018, Drivers of women’s sanitation practices in informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa: A qualitative study in Mathare Valley, Kenya, Int J Environ Health Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Limited income and asset access and control, including over land, constrained women's access to sanitation and limited independent decision-making about latrine construction; women reported using public pay-per-use toilets and incurring higher costs than men due to more frequent need.

    “Similarly, limited income and asset access and control, including over land, constrained women's access to sanitation [119, 124, 125, 135, 147, 168, 171, 174, 186, 187, 191, 217, 239, 240, 270] and limited independent decision-making about latrine construction [119, 124, 135].Women reported using public pay-per-use toilets [168, 171, 174, 227, 239, 270] and incurring higher costs than men due to”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [119] N. Jha, 2012

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    • cites [124] P Routray, 2017, Women’s role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [125] K Scott, 2017, Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India., PLoS One. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [147] SC Winter, 2019, Not just any toilet–women’s solutions to sanitation in informal settlements in Nairobi., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [168] M Bapat, 2003, Our needs, our priorities; women and men from the slums in Mumbai and Pune talk about their needs for water and sanitation., Environ Urban. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [171] J Belur, 2017, Perceptions of gender-based violence around public toilets in Mumbai slums., Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Studies have documented women's specific household-level water and sanitation-related knowledge; in Kenya, women's roles as primary water collectors instilled knowledge about water access, quality, and quantity; in Pakistan, mothers and grandmothers were a source of knowledge and influenced household decision-making about water and hygiene; and in indigenous communities in Canada and the U.S.,

    “Studies have documented women's specific household-level water and sanitation-related knowledge [118, 124, 159].In Kenya, women's roles as primary water collectors instilled knowledge about water access, quality, and quantity [76].In Pakistan, mothers and grandmothers were a source of knowledge and influenced household decisionmaking about water and hygiene, [118] while in indigenous communities”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [118] SJ Halvorson, 2004, Women’s management of the household health environment: Responding to childhood diarrhea in the Northern Areas, Pakistan., Health Place source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [124] P Routray, 2017, Women’s role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [159] K Anderson, 2013, Carriers of water: Aboriginal women’s experiences, relationships, and reflections., J Clean Prod source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] TZ Abu, 2019, What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Social capital has facilitated sanitation access; women and girls have formed and maintained social connections when accessing sanitation locations, and sought social support to ensure privacy and safety and to protect reputations when urinating or defecating.

    “Social capital has facilitated sanitation access.Women and girls have formed and maintained social connections when accessing sanitation locations, [130, 182, 189] and sought social support to ensure privacy and safety and to protect reputations when urinating or defecating [173, 182, 184, 187-190, 223, 226].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [130] N Bhatt, 2019, What motivates open defecation? A qualitative study from a rural setting in Nepal., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] N. Joshi, 2018, Low-income women’s right to sanitation services in city public spaces: A study of waste picker women in Pune., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [184] BA Caruso, 2017, Understanding and defining sanitation insecurity: Women’s gendered experiences of urination, defecation and menstruation in rural Odisha, India., BMJ Glob Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [188] T Rheinländer, 2019, Secrets, shame and discipline: School girls’ experiences of sanitation and menstrual hygiene management in a peri-urban community in Ghana., Health Care Women Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [190] KK Singh, 2019, Understanding women’s access to sanitation: A study of the slums in Delhi., Journal of Social Inclusion Studies source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [223] M Norling, 2016, High school students’ experiences in school toilets or restrooms., J Sch Nurs source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [226] BS Reddy, 2011, Sanitation and personal hygiene: what does it mean to poor and vulnerable women?, Indian J Gend Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women have faced financial or asset-related barriers to participation in community-level initiatives, including a lack of land ownership for water committees, an inability to sustain required monetary contributions for self-help groups, and a lack of financial incentive and opportunity costs.

    “Women have faced financial or asset-related barriers to participation in community-level initiatives, including a lack of land ownership for water committees (Peru [149] and Uganda [102]), an inability to sustain required monetary contributions for self-help groups (India [72]), and a lack of financial incentive and opportunity costs (India [69,89,125] and Ecuador [79]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [149] JV Delgado, 2007, The public and private domain of the everyday politics of water: the constructions of gender and water power in the Andes of Perú., Int Fem J Polit source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [102] R Naiga, 2017, Women’s crucial role in collective operation and maintenance of drinking water infrastructure in rural Uganda., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [72] MR Cairns, 2017, Gender mainstreaming and water development projects: Analyzing unexpected enviro-social impacts in Bolivia, India, and Lesotho., Gender, Place & Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Water and sanitation improvements have freed up time for other income-generating activities; conversely, women's income generation has been constrained by poor water access, limited employment opportunities, or by WASH initiatives themselves.

    “Finally, water and sanitation improvements have freed up time for other income-generating activities [56,67,105,174,194,210,295].Conversely, women's income generation has been constrained by poor water access, limited employment opportunities, or by WASH initiatives themselves.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [67] AJ James, 2002, Transforming time into money using water: A participatory study of economics and gender in rural India., Nat Resour Forum

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [105] C Sijbesma, 2009, Impacts of domestic water supply on gender and income: Results from a participatory study in a drought-prone region in Gujarat, India., Water Policy. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [194] FS Arku, 2010, Time savings from easy access to clean water: Implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being., Prog Dev Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [210] TR Zolnikov, 2016, Improved relationships in eastern Kenya from water interventions and access to water., Health Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [295] N Ilahi, 2000, Public infrastructure and private costs: Water supply and time allocation of women in rural Pakistan., Econ Dev Cult Change source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Perceived limited knowledge has inhibited women's participation in community decision-making bodies, collective action, and WASH businesses, or advantaged more educated women.

    “Perceived limited knowledge has inhibited women's participation in community decision-making bodies, collective action, and WASH businesses, or advantaged more educated women [30,74,76,79,81,82,84,97,[102][103][104].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30,74,76,79,81,82,84,97,[102][103][104]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women formed and maintained social connections when collecting water and relied on social capital from family, friends, and community members for multiple water needs; they leveraged social capital to access water when queues were long or water was scarce, jump water queues, get water from private wells, haul water using carts, receive improved home water access, wait on water deliveries, or get

    “Women formed and maintained social connections when collecting water [57,78,110,115,153,279] and relied on social capital from family, friends, and community members for multiple water needs.They leveraged social capital to access water when queues were long or water was scarce, [61,110,114,164,165,179,198,279] jump water queues, [168, 179] get water from private wells, [279] haul water using”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [57] F Clement, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [78] M Assaad, 1994, Involving women in water and sanitation initiatives; an action/research project in an Egyptian village., Water Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [115] Yuerlita, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [153] E. Van Houweling, 2016, “A good wife brings her husband bath water”: Gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [279] V. Narain, 2014, Shifting the focus from women to gender relations: Assessing the impacts of water supply interventions in the Morni–Shiwalik hills of northwest India., Mt Res Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [114] A Wutich, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [164] M Kernecker, 2017, Women’s local knowledge of water resources and adaptation to landscape change in the mountains of Veracruz, Mexico., Ecol Soc. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [165] RC Mushavi, 2020, “When you have no water, it means you have no peace”: A mixed-methods, whole-population study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Water and sanitation have both supported and constrained women's income generation; women have engaged in job opportunities like water vending, meter reading and water tank cleaning, water management, water filter and toilet pan selling, and rainwater harvesting container construction, as well as water-dependent income-generating activities and sanitation-related activities.

    “Water and sanitation have both supported and constrained women's income generation.Specifically, women have engaged in job opportunities, like water vending, [89] meter reading and water tank cleaning, [56] water management, [30,121] water filter and toilet pan selling, [66] and rainwater harvesting container construction [121,161].They have also engaged in water-dependent income-generating”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [89] P. Das, 2014, Women’s participation in community-level water governance in urban India: The gap between motivation and ability., World Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] M Grant, 2019, Rural piped-water enterprises in Cambodia: A pathway to women’s empowerment?, Water source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [121] S Rautanen, 2008, Technical work of women in Nepal’s rural water supply and sanitation., Water Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Limited household income has forced women to prioritize needs like food over sanitation; women in Kenya and India adapted by using preferred pay-per-use locations less often or strategically, like for defecation only.

    “Limited household income has forced women to prioritize needs like food over sanitation, whether investing in or paying to use toilets [135,147,186].Women in Kenya [240, 270] and India [187] adapted by using preferred pay-per-use locations less often or strategically, like for defecation only [187,240,270].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [147] SC Winter, 2019, Not just any toilet–women’s solutions to sanitation in informal settlements in Nairobi., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [240] J Corburn, 2016, Informal settlements and a relational view of health in Nairobi, Kenya: Sanitation, gender and dignity., Health Prom Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [270] SC Winter, 2019, A mixed-methods study of women’s sanitation utilization in informal settlements in Kenya., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Limited control over assets like carts, bicycles, and wheelbarrows made water collection more time-consuming, or, in sub-Arctic communities where women lack snowmobiles and guns for defense against bears, more dangerous.

    “Furthermore, limited control over assets like carts, bicycles, and wheelbarrows made water collection more time-consuming, [98,123,258] or, in sub-Arctic communities where women lack snowmobiles and guns for defense against bears, more dangerous [201].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [98] CG Mandara, 2013, Does women’s representation in local water management lead to better meeting women’s domestic water needs?, International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [258] RB Asaba, 2013, Beyond distance and time: Gender and the burden of water collection in rural Uganda., wH2O: Journal of Gender and Water.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [201] M Hanrahan, 2019, Gender and water insecurity in a subarctic Indigenous community., Can Geogr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Institutional structures-including formal laws and policies, norms, and relations-influence women's agency and resources related to water and sanitation.

    “As outlined below, institutional structures-including formal laws and policies, norms, and relations-influence women's agency and resources related to water and sanitation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women leveraged social support to assume public roles, including taking public water management roles, disseminating WASH knowledge as community facilitators, becoming masons and water technicians, establishing water enterprises, participating in WASH activities and operating WASH businesses, attending trainings on cistern building, and gaining water user association membership.

    “Women leveraged social support to assume public roles.Women needed or sought family support to take public water management roles (Vietnam [97]), disseminate water and sanitation knowledge as community facilitators (Costa Rica [63]), become masons and water technicians (Nepal [121]), establish water enterprises (Cambodia [30]), participate in WASH activities and operate WASH businesses (Indonesia”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [97] L Lebel, 2015, Gender relations and water management in different eco-cultural contexts in Northern Thailand., International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] L. Aguilar

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [121] S Rautanen, 2008, Technical work of women in Nepal’s rural water supply and sanitation., Water Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Men were more likely to collect from closer sources, where queues were shorter or they had priority access, or with assets like bicycles, motorcycles, wheelbarrows, or donkey carts to assist.

    “Men were more likely to collect from closer sources, [20] where queues were shorter [153, 261] or they had priority access, [61] or with assets like bicycles, motorcycles, wheelbarrows, or donkey carts to assist [98,123,153,258].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [20] SB Sorenson, 2011, Safe access to safe water in low income countries: Water fetching in current times., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [153] E. Van Houweling, 2016, “A good wife brings her husband bath water”: Gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [261] E. Van Houweling, 2015, Gendered water spaces: A study of the transition from wells to handpumps in Mozambique., Gender, Place & Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] S Yerian, 2014, The role of women in water management and conflict resolution in Marsabit, Kenya., Environ Manage source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women working as manual scavengers in India reported limited control over taking breaks, and not being able to take time off if ill or to participate in festivals, weddings, or other celebrations.

    “Women working as manual scavengers in India reported limited control over taking breaks, and not being able to take time off if ill or to participate in festivals, weddings, or other celebrations [138,141].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [138] A. Mohankumar, 2015, Narrating the Stench Testimonies of Women Engaged in Manual Scavenging in Udaipur, Rajasthan., Indian Journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [141] M. Shahid, 2015, Manual scavenging: Issues of caste, culture and violence., Soc Change. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women expended great amounts of time meeting sanitation needs and fulfilling sanitation-related responsibilities, including long walks to sanitation sites when lacking private home toilets, waiting in long toilet queues, going for sanitation in early morning or late at night to avoid queues or ensure privacy, or open defecating rather than walking to and queuing at latrines.

    “Women expended great amounts of time meeting sanitation needs and fulfilling sanitationrelated responsibilities [64, 66, 121, 122, 125, 127, 128, 132, 133, 135, 138, 141, 168, 173, 174, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189,190,195,219,226,228,236,239,240,248,250,256,265].Women in India, [125,195] Kenya, [256] and South Africa [265] reported long walks to sanitation sites when they lacked private home toilets,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [64] E Bisung, 2019, Concept mapping: Engaging stakeholders to identify factors that contribute to empowerment in the water and sanitation sector in West Africa., SSM Popul Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] N Indarti, 2019, Women’s involvement in economic opportunities in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Indonesia: Examining personal experiences and potential for empowerment., Development Studies Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [121] S Rautanen, 2008, Technical work of women in Nepal’s rural water supply and sanitation., Water Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [122] BS Reddy, 2008, Appropriate sanitation: Perceptions and experiences amongst a heterogeneous group of the urban poor, ICFAI Journal of Public Administration

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [125] K Scott, 2017, Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India., PLoS One. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [127] C Sijbesma, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [128] AEP Azeez, 2019, Women’s experiences of defecating in the open: A qualitative study., Indian J Gend Stud

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [132] NMU Dwipayanti, 2019, Cultural determinants of sanitation uptake and sustainability: local values and traditional roles in rural Bali, Indonesia., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] M Elledge, 2020, A gender lens into sanitation technology innovation., J Manage Eng source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Constraints on women's time limit access to safe water or resources needed to treat or boil water; women also spend considerable time caring for family members ill with water-related diseases.

    “Constraints on women's time limit access to safe water or resources needed to treat or boil water [92,118,197,199,208]. Women also spend considerable time caring for family members ill with waterrelated diseases [26,63,111,177,193,239,240,248,259].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [92] SE El Katsha, 1989, Women, water, and sanitation: Household behavioral patterns in two Egyptian villages., Water Int source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [118] SJ Halvorson, 2004, Women’s management of the household health environment: Responding to childhood diarrhea in the Northern Areas, Pakistan., Health Place source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [197] JF Chew, 2019, Water source preferences and water quality perceptions among women in the eastern region, Ghana: a grounded theory study., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [199] B Crow, 2002, Gender, class, and access to water: Three cases in a poor and crowded delta., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [208] S Wood, 2012, Understanding why women adopt and sustain home water treatment: insights from the Malawi antenatal care program., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] L. Aguilar

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [111] NV Thai, 2019, Women and water management: A policy assessment—A case study in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam., Asia Pac J Rural Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] IM Faisal, 2005, An analysis of gender–water nexus in rural Bangladesh., J Dev Soc

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [193] S Andajani, 2015, Gender and water in Northeast Thailand: inequalities and women’s realities., J Int Womens Stud

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women accessed social networks to address water and sanitation problems and take on roles, including lobbying officials, raising complaints with local authorities, leveraging village council connections to access latrine construction subsidies, and creating strategic alliances with male household members.

    “Women accessed social networks to address water and sanitation problems and take on roles [65,79,90,95,135,149,158,193].They used social networks to lobby officials to solve water problems (Thailand [193]), raise complaints with local authorities about water issues (Ecuador [79] and Nigeria [158]), leverage village council connections to access latrine construction subsidies (India [135]), and”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [65] S Gabrielsson, 2013, Widows: Agents of change in a climate of water uncertainty., J Clean Prod source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [79] EP Bastidas, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [90] L. Devasia, 1998, Safe drinking water and its acquisition: Rural women’s participation in water management in Maharashtra, India., Int J Water Resour Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [95] J Ge, 2011, Return migration and the reiteration of gender norms in water management politics: Insights from a Chinese village., Geoforum source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [149] JV Delgado, 2007, The public and private domain of the everyday politics of water: the constructions of gender and water power in the Andes of Perú., Int Fem J Polit source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [158] Acey C. Gender, 2010, community mobilisation for urban water infrastructure investment in southern Nigeria, Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [193] S Andajani, 2015, Gender and water in Northeast Thailand: inequalities and women’s realities., J Int Womens Stud

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Seasonal changes impacted time spent on water acquisition: during the dry season, women waited for unpredictable water deliveries, spent extra time collecting water when sources dried up, slept or cooked at sources when lines were long, and walked long distances in the dark.

    “Seasonal changes impacted time spent on water acquisition: during the dry season, women waited for often unpredictable and therefore disruptive water deliveries (Philippines [100]); spent extra time collecting water when sources dried up (Ghana [197]); slept or cooked at sources when lines were long (Mozambique [261]); and walked long distances in the dark (Mozambique [153]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [100] LR Mason, 2012, Gender and asset dimensions of seasonal water insecurity in urban Philippines., Weather Clim Soc source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [197] JF Chew, 2019, Water source preferences and water quality perceptions among women in the eastern region, Ghana: a grounded theory study., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [261] E. Van Houweling, 2015, Gendered water spaces: A study of the transition from wells to handpumps in Mozambique., Gender, Place & Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Time spent on sanitation has caused women to be late for work or suppress needs to avoid being late, work longer days if they needed to leave to use the toilet, fail to complete household chores, or be scolded or punished for taking too long.

    “Time spent on sanitation has caused women to be late for work or suppress needs to avoid being late, [168, 173] work longer days if they needed to leave to use the toilet, [250] fail to complete household chores, [226] or be scolded or punished for taking too long.[189]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [168] M Bapat, 2003, Our needs, our priorities; women and men from the slums in Mumbai and Pune talk about their needs for water and sanitation., Environ Urban. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] N. Joshi, 2018, Low-income women’s right to sanitation services in city public spaces: A study of waste picker women in Pune., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [250] D Rajaraman, 2013, A qualitative study of access to sanitation amongst low-income working women in Bangalore, India., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [226] BS Reddy, 2011, Sanitation and personal hygiene: what does it mean to poor and vulnerable women?, Indian J Gend Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Research in Uganda found women constituted less than a third of members and were rarely in leadership positions on water user committees despite guidelines to have women comprise 50% of membership and serve in influential positions.

    “Research in Uganda found women constituted less than a third of members and were rarely in leadership positions on water user committees despite guidelines to have women comprise 50% of membership and serve in influential positions [102].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102] R Naiga, 2017, Women’s crucial role in collective operation and maintenance of drinking water infrastructure in rural Uganda., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Rwanda, men preferred water collection over other traditionally female tasks, though still viewed it as a woman's task.

    “In Rwanda, men preferred water collection over other traditionally female tasks, though still viewed it as a woman's task [305].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [305] L McLean, 2019, Shifting and transforming gender-inequitable beliefs, behaviours and norms in intimate partnerships: The Indashyikirwa couples programme in Rwanda., Cult Health Sex.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women assumed more responsibilities for latrine cleaning than men because cleaning is typically considered women's work.

    “Women assumed more responsibilities for latrine cleaning than men because cleaning is typically considered women's work.[186,306]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [186] J Kwiringira, 2014, Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [306] OO Aluko, 2018, The dynamics and determinants of household shared sanitation cleanliness in a heterogeneous urban settlement in Southwest Nigeria., Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A comparative study in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia, and Ethiopia found some countries mandated sex-segregated school toilets, but adherence was inconsistent.

    “A comparative study in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia, and Ethiopia, found some countries mandated sex-segregated school toilets, but adherence was inconsistent [253].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [253] M Sommer, 2015, A comparison of the menstruation and education experiences of girls in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia and Ethiopia., Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Inuit men carry guns for protection against polar bears near water sources, something unacceptable for women to do.

    “They carry guns for protection against polar bears near water sources-something unacceptable for women to do;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [201] M Hanrahan, 2019, Gender and water insecurity in a subarctic Indigenous community., Can Geogr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Malawi, women with disabilities experienced difficulty collecting water, though they are often still expected to fulfill this role.

    “In Malawi, women with disabilities experienced difficulty collecting water, though they are often still expected to fulfill this role [282].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [282] S White, 2016, A qualitative study of barriers to accessing water, sanitation and hygiene for disabled people in Malawi., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    When men or boys do collect water, it has been more acceptable when they consider it 'helping' women or use technology-like bicycles, wheelbarrows, or motorcycles.

    “When men or boys do collect water, it has been more acceptable when they consider it 'helping' women [261] or use technology-like bicycles, wheelbarrows, or motorcycles-while women and girls are expected to carry water [123, 165, 229, 258, 261].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [261] E. Van Houweling, 2015, Gendered water spaces: A study of the transition from wells to handpumps in Mozambique., Gender, Place & Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] MV Remigios, 2011, Women–water–sanitation: The case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe., Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [165] RC Mushavi, 2020, “When you have no water, it means you have no peace”: A mixed-methods, whole-population study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Norms of femininity and masculinity were found to be more fluid among lower castes in northwest India, enabling men to help women with water collection more easily than men in upper caste households.

    “Norms of femininity and masculinity were found to be more fluid among lower castes in northwest India, enabling men to help women with water collection more easily than men in upper caste households [279].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [279] V. Narain, 2014, Shifting the focus from women to gender relations: Assessing the impacts of water supply interventions in the Morni–Shiwalik hills of northwest India., Mt Res Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    In sanitation planning initiatives in Kenya, a man justified women's exclusion from participation in the sanitation initiatives stating, women's brains were 'like that of a child.'

    “In sanitation planning initiatives in Kenya, a man justified women's exclusion from participation in the sanitation initiatives stating, women's brains were”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] W Thuita, 2017, The role of marginalised women in sanitation initiatives: Somali women in northern Kenya., Dev Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Women frequently accompanied one another or asked men to accompany them for safety when open defecating.

    “Regarding sanitation, women frequently accompanied one another or asked men to accompany them for safety when open defecating, [135, 173-175, 182, 187, 189, 251]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [135] T Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] N. Joshi, 2018, Low-income women’s right to sanitation services in city public spaces: A study of waste picker women in Pune., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] S Kulkarni, 2017, No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] T Shiras, 2018, Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: Exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress., BMC Int Health Hum Rights.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] P Routray, 2015, Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: An exploratory qualitative study., BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    NGOs have targeted men as household heads and ignored women in decision-making and public participation.

    “NGOs have targeted men as household heads and ignored women in decision-making and public participation [124].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] P Routray, 2017, Women’s role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    124 (48%) included articles did not use 'empowerment' or related words in their text, but were included because they specifically reported on empowerment sub-domains aligned with our guiding model.

    “Importantly, 124 (48%) included articles did not use 'empowerment' or related words (e.g.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Agency was the least commonly engaged domain among included articles (122; 47%); the Resources domains was dominant (241; 94%).

    “Agency was the least commonly engaged domain among included articles (122; 47%); the Resources domains was dominant (241; 94%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Water and sanitation research that engages empowerment and related domains is extensive and growing, yet clear conceptualization of empowerment remains limited.

    “Water and sanitation research that engages empowerment and related domains is extensive and growing, yet clear conceptualization of empowerment remains limited.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority (86%) of included research was from Africa and Asia and focused on adults (69%).

    “The majority (86%) of included research was from Africa and Asia and focused on adults (69%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Another tool is under development focusing specifically on gender equality: the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Gender Equality Measure (WASH-GEM).

    “Adjacently related, another tool is under development focusing specifically on gender equality: the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Gender Equality Measure (WASH-GEM) [310].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [310] N Carrard, 2022, The water, sanitation and hygiene gender equality measure (WASH-GEM): Conceptual foundations and domains of change., Womens Stud Int Forum

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Negative effects in India included increased expectations of wives to bring water home, quarrels, and conflicts at water points.

    “Negative effects in India included increased expectations of wives to bring water home, quarrels, and conflicts at water points.[279]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [279] V. Narain, 2014, Shifting the focus from women to gender relations: Assessing the impacts of water supply interventions in the Morni–Shiwalik hills of northwest India., Mt Res Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In India, initiatives led to heightened status of women in and outside the home and positive attitudes and support for women's collective work.

    “heightened status of women in and outside the home and positive attitudes and support for women's collective work (India [56]);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] S Aladuwaka, 2010, Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka., Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In some cases, water collection responsibilities and having insufficient water to meet all household members' needs have created tension and led to intra-household violence.

    “In some cases, water collection responsibilities and having insufficient water to meet all household members' needs have created tension and led to intra-household violence; further details are provided in S1 Text.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Vanuatu, water/sanitation initiatives led to increased respect and support for women by men, changed division of labor, and increased ability of women to negotiate with husbands.

    “Positive effects included increased respect and support for women by men, changed division of labor, and increased ability of women to negotiate with husbands (Vanuatu [26]);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    82% (211) of included articles were published since 2010, providing evidence that aligns with previous anecdotal observations that empowerment is increasingly a focus in water and sanitation research.

    “We found that 82% (211) of included articles were published since 2010, providing evidence that aligns with previous anecdotal observations that empowerment is increasingly a focus in water and sanitation research [28,39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] J Fisher, 2017, Mainstreaming gender in the WASH sector: Dilution or distillation?, Gend Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [39] J MacArthur, 2020, WASH and gender: a critical review of the literature and implications for gender-transformative WASH research., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No studies focused primarily on men or boys, or on transgender or non-binary individuals.

    “No studies focused primarily on men or boys, or on transgender or non-binary individuals, revealing patterns of research inequities that should be addressed to include more diverse geographies and populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    We synthesized evidence on water, sanitation, and women and girls' empowerment from 257 peer-reviewed empirical research articles, resulting in the most comprehensive synthesis of gender-focused water and sanitation research to date.

    “We synthesized evidence on water, sanitation, and women and girls' empowerment from 257 peer-reviewed empirical research articles, resulting in the most comprehensive synthesis of gender-focused water and sanitation research to date.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Inter-household sanitation-related conflicts were reported related to shared toilets, where women practice open defecation, and accessing sanitation facilities.

    “Inter-household sanitation-related conflicts were reported related to shared toilets, [187] where women practice open defecation, [189,190] and accessing sanitation facilities [175].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [187] A. Nallari, 2015, “All we want are toilets inside our homes!” The critical role of sanitation in the lives of urban poor adolescent girls in Bengaluru, India., Environ Urban source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [189] KC Sahoo, 2015, Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [190] KK Singh, 2019, Understanding women’s access to sanitation: A study of the slums in Delhi., Journal of Social Inclusion Studies source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    A substantial body of research examining domains and sub-domains of empowerment exists.

    “However, a substantial body of research examining domains and sub-domains of empowerment exists that should be leveraged to develop and evaluate programs focused on improving the life outcomes of women and girls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Research in Ghana showed how a water project resulted in time savings, which further benefited well-being among women.

    “Research in Ghana showed how a water project resulted in time savings, which further benefited well-being among women [194].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [194] FS Arku, 2010, Time savings from easy access to clean water: Implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being., Prog Dev Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The Safety and Security domain is well-researched; 82 (32%) articles document links between WASH and safety and security, yet only one study evaluated a program that improved perceived safety.

    “For example, the Safety and Security domain is well-researched; 82 (32%) articles document links between WASH and safety and security, yet only one study evaluated a program that improved perceived safety [257].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [257] J You, 2020, Multidimensional Benefits of Improved Sanitation: Evaluating ‘PEE POWER®’in Kisoro, Uganda., Int J Env Res Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A water intervention in Kenya also enabled time savings, which led to improved intra-familial relationships.

    “A water intervention in Kenya also enabled time savings, which led to improved intra-familial relationships [210].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [210] TR Zolnikov, 2016, Improved relationships in eastern Kenya from water interventions and access to water., Health Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Despite the numerous studies that have documented impacts of water and sanitation conditions on sub-domains of women and girls' empowerment, there has been scant action in response.

    “Despite the numerous studies that have documented impacts of water and sanitation conditions on sub-domains of women and girls' empowerment, there has been scant action in response, warranting greater investment in programs and evaluations to create and assess change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    WASH programming in Vietnam provided knowledge and skills, which women reported improved their decisionmaking, public participation, and relations.

    “WASH programming in Vietnam provided knowledge and skills, which women reported improved their decisionmaking, public participation, and relations [58].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] C Leahy, 2017, Transforming gender relations through water, sanitation, and hygiene programming and monitoring in Vietnam., Gend Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    This review has leveraged an existing model of empowerment to analyze full texts of an extensive volume of research, resulting in the most comprehensive and rigorous synthesis on women's and girls' empowerment and water and sanitation to date.

    “This review has leveraged an existing model of empowerment to analyze full texts of an extensive volume of research, resulting in the most comprehensive and rigorous synthesis on women's and girls' empowerment and water and sanitation to date.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review used PRISMA criteria.

    “We report our review using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria (See S1-PRISMA Checklist in S1 Table).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Inclusion of only peer-reviewed sources in English is a main limitation.

    “Inclusion of only peer-reviewed sources in English is a main limitation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review assessed all studies using the Mixed-Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) 2018.

    “We assessed all studies using the Mixed-Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) 2018 developed by Pluye et al. [54] and updated in 2018 [55] for the appraisal of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [54] P Pluye, 2009, A scoring system for appraising mixed methods research, and concomitantly appraising qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods primary studies in mixed studies reviews., Int J Nurs Stud source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] QN Hong, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Historically WASH programs focused on women's contributions to improving effectiveness and impact of programs, and this focus has been evolving to consider how WASH programming may contribute to positive gender outcomes and women's empowerment.

    “While historically WASH programs focused on women's contributions to improving effectiveness and impact of programs, this focus has been evolving to consider how WASH programming may contribute to positive gender outcomes [26] and, more specifically, to women's empowerment [27][28][29][30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] J Willetts, 2010, Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiative., Pacific Economic Bulletin

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27][28][29][30]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    All studies were retained regardless of quality scores because the primary aim was to understand if and how research engaged water and sanitation and empowerment themes.

    “Because the primary aim of this work is to understand if and how research engaged water and sanitation and empowerment themes, all studies were retained regardless of scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Women's empowerment is widely recognized to be multi-dimensional and a process that is valuable both intrinsically and instrumentally for its link to varied life outcomes.

    “women's empowerment is widely recognized to be multi-dimensional and a process that is valuable both intrinsically for its own sake and instrumentally for its link to varied life outcomes, including nutrition, access to care, contraception use, vaccination, and exposure to violence [32][33][34][35][36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32][33][34][35][36]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Bias assessment was excluded because qualitative studies would have low bias scores by default and the activity would introduce bias.

    “Because this review is exploratory, we excluded bias assessment, reasoning that qualitative studies would have low bias scores by default (despite rich insights), and therefore the activity would introduce bias.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    One team member performed quality appraisals of all studies and a second team member performed a quality appraisal agreement check on 10% of studies.

    “One team member performed quality appraisals of all studies and a second team member performed a quality appraisal agreement check on 10% of studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The conceptual model defines empowerment of women and girls as 'the expansion of choice and strengthening of voice through the transformation of power relations, so women and girls have more control over their lives and futures'.

    “The authors define empowerment of women and girls as 'the expansion of choice and strengthening of voice through the transformation of power relations, so women and girls have more control over their lives and futures' (p.13).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] AHJM Van Eerdewijk, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Line-by-line coding of the results sections was carried out independently by two team members, who first coded two papers independently and compared to assess inter-coder agreement.

    “Following best practice, [53] line-by-line coding of the results sections of eligible papers, which present the empirical data from the studies, was carried out independently by two team members, who first coded two papers independently and compared to assess inter-coder agreement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] K. Malterud, 2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The results sections of eligible papers present the empirical data from the studies.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The conceptual model involves the interaction of three domains-agency, resources, and institutional structures-each with several sub-domains.

    “Their conceptualization of empowerment, which they consider to be both a process and an outcome, involves the interaction of three domains-agency, resources, and institutional structures-each of which includes several sub-domains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] AHJM Van Eerdewijk, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Naila Kabeer (1999) defined empowerment as 'the expansion in people's ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them'.

    “Naila Kabeer (1999), who defined empowerment as 'the expansion in people's ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them' [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] N Kabeer, 1999, Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment., Dev Change. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    26% of the global population lacks access to water that is available when needed and free from chemical and fecal contamination, and 46% lacks access to household sanitation facilities that safely manage excreta.

    “26% of the global population lacks access to water that is available when needed and free from chemical and fecal contamination, and 46% lacks access to household sanitation facilities that safely manage excreta [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Joint Monitoring Programme. Progress on household drinking water sanitation, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2017, 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Dery et al. (2020) identified five interrelated dimensions of empowerment in their scoping review: access to information, participation, capacity building, leadership and accountability, and decision-making.

    “Among the 13 included articles, of which four focused on women's access to WASH and empowerment, five interrelated dimensions of empowerment were identified: access to information, participation, capacity building, leadership and accountability, and decision-making [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] F Dery, 2020, Understanding empowerment in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): a scoping review., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The two completed reviews (Dery et al. and MacArthur et al.) have used methods that are limited in their scope and rigor, and a need has remained for a more comprehensive synthesis of the evidence.

    “However, the two reviews that have been completed (Dery et al. and MacArthur et al.) have used methods that are limited in their scope and rigor, [44] and a need has remained for a more comprehensive synthesis of the evidence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] MJ Grant, 2009, A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies., Health Information & Libraries Journal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Inclusion does not guarantee participation, voice, or decision-making power; women's participation in WASH-related governance has been constrained by a lack of awareness about the rules, a lack of transparency or distrust in political institutions, husbands or sons attending meetings in their place, and being ignored by men.

    “Yet, inclusion does not guarantee participation, voice, or decision-making power.Women's participation in WASH-related governance has been constrained by a lack of awareness about the rules (Uganda [102]), a lack of transparency or distrust in political institutions (Kenya [87]), husbands or sons attending meetings in their place (India [106]), and being ignored by men (Kenya [61]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [102] R Naiga, 2017, Women’s crucial role in collective operation and maintenance of drinking water infrastructure in rural Uganda., Soc Nat Resour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [87] JE Coulter, 2018, Giving women a voice on decision-making about water: barriers and opportunities in Laikipia, Kenya., Gender, Place & Culture.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [106] N. Singh, 2006, Women’s participation in local water governance: Understanding institutional contradictions., Gend Technol Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Women are the primary water-collectors globally, devoting considerably more time to water-related tasks than men.

    “Women are the primary water-collectors globally, [18,20] devoting considerably more time to water-related tasks than men.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] JP Graham, 2016, An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 sub-Saharan African countries., PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] SB Sorenson, 2011, Safe access to safe water in low income countries: Water fetching in current times., Soc Sci Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    WASH policies, and uneven policy awareness, implementation, and enforcement, have posed barriers to women.

    “WASH policies, and uneven policy awareness, implementation, and enforcement, have posed barriers to women.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Norms have influenced the extent that men engage in water collection and how they are perceived.

    “Norms have influenced the extent that men engage in water collection and how they are perceived [110,198,258,279,296].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [110] F. Sultana, 2009, Fluid lives: Subjectivities, gender and water in rural Bangladesh., Gender, Place and Culture. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [198] SM Collins, 2019, "I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya., Glob Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [258] RB Asaba, 2013, Beyond distance and time: Gender and the burden of water collection in rural Uganda., wH2O: Journal of Gender and Water.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Water and sanitation-related norms, including roles, responsibilities, and restrictions, have shifted, but impacts are variable.

    “Water and sanitation-related norms, including roles, responsibilities, and restrictions, have shifted, but impacts are variable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Relations have both facilitated and hindered water and sanitation-related behaviors and experiences.

    “Relations have both facilitated and hindered water and sanitation-related behaviors and experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Water and sanitation initiatives have both negatively and positively affected relations.

    “Finally, water and sanitation initiatives have both negatively and positively affected relations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our review is more expansive and rigorous than recent WASH and gender or empowerment-focused reviews that restricted inclusion based on publication date, only extracted data from titles and abstracts, or focused more narrowly on the intersection of gender, water, and health or on identifying the dimensions of empowerment used in WASH research.

    “Our review is more expansive and rigorous than recent WASH and gender or empowerment-focused reviews that restricted inclusion based on publication date, [39] only extracted data from titles and abstracts, [39] or focused more narrowly on the intersection of gender, water, and health [40] or on identifying the dimensions of empowerment used in WASH research [38].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [39] J MacArthur, 2020, WASH and gender: a critical review of the literature and implications for gender-transformative WASH research., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [40] P Pouramin, 2020, A systematic review of water and gender interlinkages: Assessing the intersection with health., Front Water. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] F Dery, 2020, Understanding empowerment in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): a scoping review., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    This review not only contributes insights to those working in the WASH sector, it also augments understanding of the role of water and sanitation in discourse on empowerment more broadly.

    “This review not only contributes insights to those working in the WASH sector, it also augments understanding of the role of water and sanitation in discourse on empowerment more broadly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    The tool we created and used (Fig 1) can be adopted to assess engagement of empowerment concepts in future research.

    “The tool we created and used (Fig 1) can be adopted to assess engagement of empowerment concepts in future research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Water and sanitation conditions have strained both intra-and inter-household relations.

    “Water and sanitation conditions have strained both intra-and inter-household relations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Our assessment aligns with a reflection by Dery et al. (2019) that the definition of empowerment in WASH research lacks clarity.

    “Our assessment aligns with a reflection by Dery et al. (2019) that the definition of empowerment in WASH research lacks clarity [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] F Dery, 2020, Understanding empowerment in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): a scoping review., J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    This review only captures studies available in English, does not include grey literature, could have engaged additional databases, and research has continued to emerge since the search-all factors that may limit this review's comprehensiveness.

    “This review only captures studies available in English, does not include grey literature, could have engaged additional databases-particularly those that engage disciplines beyond public health-and broadened search terms to capture more relevant work, and research has continued to emerge since the search-all factors that may limit this review's comprehensiveness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Our findings underscore the need for a more comprehensive 'transformative WASH,' which extends beyond reductions in contamination, to impact health and well-being more inclusively.

    “However, our findings underscore the need for a more comprehensive 'transformative WASH,' which extends beyond reductions in contamination, to impact health and well-being more inclusively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    While this review captures research on menstruation, it only does so in the context of water and sanitation research and cannot be considered a comprehensive review of menstruation and empowerment.

    “While this review captures research on menstruation, it only does so in the context of water and sanitation research and cannot be considered a comprehensive review of menstruation and empowerment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This review provides a valuable base and resource from which to develop programming and further research, and does capture literature beyond public health because of our inclusion of ancestry and descendancy search methodologies.

    “Still, this review provides a valuable base and resource from which to develop programming and further research, and does capture literature beyond public health because of our inclusion of ancestry and descendancy search methodologies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If WASH-related empowerment is to be monitored at scale, a consensus on indicators and associated measures will be needed eventually.

    “If WASH-related empowerment is to be monitored at scale, a consensus on indicators and associated measures will be needed eventually.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    WASH programs have the potential to catalyze change across domains of empowerment and to be transformative in the lives of women and girls, but only a few studies have documented these linkages and transformative change.

    “Furthermore, WASH programs have the potential to catalyze change across domains of empowerment and to be transformative in the lives of women and girls, but only a few studies have documented these linkages and transformative change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Hygiene was not a focus.

    “Hygiene was not a focus and should be considered in future reviews.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    This review confirms the need to set goals for measuring, monitoring, and reporting the specific impacts of WASH on women and girls, including impacts that extend beyond health.

    “Finally, this review confirms the need to set goals for measuring, monitoring, and reporting the specific impacts of WASH on women and girls, including impacts that extend beyond health (e.g.time, freedom of movement, privacy) [22].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] BA Caruso, 2015, Gender disparities in water, sanitation, and global health, Lancet source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although existing measurement is limited, this review illuminates how water and sanitation circumstances and conditions have resulted in myriad negative impacts related to various subdomains of women's empowerment that remain unmonitored and under-evaluated.

    “Although existing measurement is limited, this review illuminates how water and sanitation circumstances and conditions have resulted in myriad negative impacts related to various subdomains of women's empowerment that remain unmonitored and under-evaluated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The bodily integrity, health, and safety and security sub-domains are particularly relevant when assessing the health-related burdens of inadequate WASH.

    “Specifically, the bodily integrity, health, and safety and security sub-domains are particularly relevant when assessing the health-related burdens of inadequate WASH.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    While we intended to register the review, we began extraction prior to registering and recent revisions to guidelines now stipulate extraction should not have started prior to registration and thus we were no longer eligible.

    “Finally, while we intended to register the review, we began extraction to inform other work prior to registering and recent revisions to guidelines now stipulate extraction should not have started prior to registration and thus we were no longer eligible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The integration of a gender lens into WASH research, and program and policy planning and evaluation, can enable the identification of inequities and potential harms that are underassessed, rendering them invisible.

    “Importantly, the integration of a gender lens into WASH research, and program and policy planning and evaluation, can enable the identification of inequities and potential harms and underassessed, rendering them invisible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Other models of empowerment exist that could have framed the review.

    “Further, other models of empowerment exist that could have framed the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
157 of 157

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The results sections of eligible papers present the empirical data from the studies.

    “line-by-line coding of the results sections of eligible papers, which present the empirical data from the studies”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The four-tier classification tool created by the authors is valid for classifying how papers engaged empowerment-related terms.

    “We then classified how papers engaged empowerment-related terms using a four-tier classification tool we created”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Agency article count differs between the text and Table 3

    Major

    The abstract and discussion report 122 articles engaging Agency, while Table 3 reports 137. This count supports the paper's conclusion that Agency is the least-studied domain.

  • Regional percentages differ between the Results and Table 2

    Minor

    The Results give 48% for Asia and 42% for Africa, whereas Table 2 gives 46% and 40%. The table's percentages are consistent with its counts out of 257 articles.

  • Water and sanitation focus counts differ from Table 3

    Minor

    The text reports 115 water-only, 85 combined, and 57 sanitation-only articles. Table 3 instead gives 116, 83, and 58, respectively.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 291 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 25

  1. Joint Monitoring Programme. Progress on household drinking water sanitation, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2017, 2019, Special focus on inequalities.
  2. Z Burt, 2016, Toward gender equality through sanitation access
  3. BA Caruso, 2021, A Conceptual Framework to Inform National and Global Monitoring of Gender Equality in WASH
  4. BA Caruso, 2021, A Review of Measures and Indicators for Gender in WASH
  5. EM Martinez, 2009, Women’s Empowerment at CARE
  6. QN Hong, 2018, Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) Version 2018 User Guide.
  7. L. Aguilar, Water as a source of equity and empowerment in Costa Rica. 2005. In: Opposing Currents The Politics of Water and Gender in Latin America, 123
  8. TNTP Tam, 2012, Participation of women in rural water supply and sanitation projects: visible or invisible actors? The case of the sub-district of Maubara (Liquiçá, Timor-Leste)., International Journal of Multidisciplinary Thought, 2, 149
  9. SM Panda, 2012, Improving process of natural resources management at the grassroots: The case of the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)., 523
  10. A Bastola, 2015, Gender and governance: a case of Jalswarajya Project., 120
  11. L. Chipeta, 2009, Water crisis in Blantyre City and its impact on the women: A case of Mbayani and Ntopwa Area., J Int Womens Stud., 10, 17
  12. PK Mehta, 2015, Unleashing the gender differentials in water management: The rural milieu., 139
  13. S Singh, 2018, Role of institutions related to gender mainsreaming in integrated watershed management project., Green Farming., 9, 144
  14. Yuerlita, 2017, Women’s participation in a rural water supply and sanitation project: A case study in Jorong Kampung Baru, Solok, West Sumatra, Indonesia., 89
  15. N. Jha, 2012, Reducing a community’s water and sanitation burden: Insights from Maharashtra, 203
  16. BS Reddy, 2008, Appropriate sanitation: Perceptions and experiences amongst a heterogeneous group of the urban poor, ICFAI Journal of Public Administration, 4, 52
  17. C Sijbesma, 2012, Adopting a gender approach in a water and sanitation project: The case of the 4WS Project in coastal communities in South Asia
  18. A. Mohankumar, 2015, Narrating the Stench Testimonies of Women Engaged in Manual Scavenging in Udaipur, Rajasthan., Indian Journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work, 3, 45
  19. G von Medeazza, 2015, Women-led total sanitation: Saving lives and dignity., 231
  20. RR Bustamente, 2005, Women in the "water war" in the Cochabamba Valleys. Opposing Currents The Politics of Water and Gender in Latin America. Pitt Latin American Studies, 72
  21. N. Singh, 2006, Water & Women in Past, Present, and Future., 94
  22. E Van Houweling, 2012, The role of productive water use in women’s livelihoods. Evidence from rural Senegal., Water Alternatives., 5, 658
  23. WM Ngila, 2014, Safety, sexual harassment, sanitary facilities, and household chores as threats to girl child in mixed secondary schools, Journal of International Forum of Researchers in Education (JIFORE)., 1, 36
  24. S Prasad, 2015, Leadership and participation: Role of gender., 190
  25. L McLean, 2019, Shifting and transforming gender-inequitable beliefs, behaviours and norms in intimate partnerships: The Indashyikirwa couples programme in Rwanda., Cult Health Sex., 1

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Caruso, B. A., Conrad, A., Patrick, M., Owens, A., Kviten, K., Zarella, O., Rogers, H., & Sinharoy, S. S.
Affiliations
Emory University (US)
Corresponding author
Caruso, Bethany A.
ORCID
Venue
PLOS Water
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2022-06-07
Volume
1
Issue
6
Pages
e0000026
ISSN
2767-3219 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026
OpenAlex
W4281638009
Cited by
94
References
291
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 3
FWCI
1.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLOS Water (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • medRxiv (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1191625)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
  • Social Sciences › Education › Gender, Education, and Development Issues
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
Keywords
women's empowerment, girls' empowerment, water and sanitation, agency, resources, institutional framework, privacy, freedom of movement, empowerment measurement, gender-transformative approaches

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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