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The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative review
Abstract
: Over the course of the last half century, numerous training programs intended to develop creativity capacities have been proposed. In this study, a quantitative meta‐analysis of program evaluation efforts was conducted. Based on 70 prior studies, it was found that well‐designed creativity training programs typically induce gains in performance with these effects generalizing across criteria, settings, and target populations. Moreover, these effects held when internal validity considerations were taken into account. An examination of the factors contributing to the relative effectiveness of these training programs indicated that more successful programs were likely to focus on development of cognitive skills and the heuristics involved in skill application, using realistic exercises appropriate to the domain at hand. The implications of these observations for the development of creativity through educational and training interventions are discussed along with directions for future research.
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“Our scoping search has identified only three systematic reviews in students or general population focusing on the impact of CTPIP (i.e., Davies et al., 2013;Scott et al., 2004;Valgeirsdottir & Onarheim, 2017).”
From Creativity training programs in primary education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“a wide variety of activities based on a previous cognitive process, which are relatively challenging from a contextual perspective and include a series of practical exercises to apply the strategies acquired (Scott et al., 2004);”
From Creativity training programs in primary education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“These results align with those obtained by Scott et al. (2004), and clearly unveil that there is still no agreement on what methodology should be used mainly in CTPIP to further enhance the typical developing primary education pupils' creativity or divergent thinking.”
From Creativity training programs in primary education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al. (2004)
In the citing paper
“it is demonstrated that CTPIP influence the development of their creative potential, as already exposed by authors such as Scott et al. (2004), andValgeirsdottir &Onarheim (2017).”
From Creativity training programs in primary education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al. (2004)
In the citing paper
“Obviously, the number of studies included in this review can be considered small, especially when compared to the number of studies included in other reviews on CTPIP (e.g., Scott et al., 2004;Valgeirsdottir & Onarheim, 2017).”
From Creativity training programs in primary education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Research and experts suggest the utility of many additional creativity enhancement techniques (see, e.g., Thornhill-Miller and Dupont 2016), and the largest and most rapid effects are often attributed to these more method- or technique-oriented approaches (Scott et al. 2004).”
From Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education (2023) · cites this paper as Scott et al. 2004
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Fostering Individual Creativity Through Organizational Context
Agars, M. D., Kaufman, J. C., Deane, A., & Smith, B. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374714-3.00012-4 · Cited by 33
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Min, H., Abbasi, B. N., & Jing, H. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05817-5 · Cited by 58
“Moreover, Scott et al. (2004) highlights the importance of the environment in fostering creative use of language, suggesting that supportive contexts can signi fi cantly enhance creative outputs in language learning.”
Errors and Understanding: The Effects of Error-Management Training on Creative Problem-Solving
Robledo, I. C., Hester, K. S., Peterson, D. R., Barrett, J. D., Day, E. A., Hougen, D. F., & Mumford, M. D. (2012) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2012.677352 · Cited by 29
“Moreover, the findings obtained by Scott et al. (2004a, 2004b) indicate that training programs that focus on key cognitive processes, such as problem definition, conceptual combination, and idea generation, and provide more effective strategies for execution of these processes, are the creativity…”
BackgroundHorng, J., Hsiao, H.-L., Liu, C.-H. S., Chou, S.-F., & Chung, Y.-C. (2020) · Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education · doi:10.1016/j.jhlste.2020.100289 · Cited by 29
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“Scott, Leritz, and Mumford (2004) outlined six methods for developing creativity: (1) changing or improving the environment; (2) motivating through incentives; (3) building expertise; (4) enhancing career development experiences; (5) facilitating group work and interaction; and (6) training and…”
BackgroundChang, Y.-L., Chen, H., Wu, I.-C., Chang, J., & Wu, C. (2016) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.12.002 · Cited by 30
“Scott, Leritz, and Mumford (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of 70 papers n creative training and teaching and found that overall, technical thinking training could promote creativity better and that ttitude or behavior are not as effective in enhancing creativity.”
BackgroundThe Mediating Role of Cognitive Flexibility in the Influence of Counter-Stereotypes on Creativity
Zuo, B., Wen, F., Wang, M., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00105 · Cited by 31
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Methods in Creativity Research
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“…competency has been gaining attention in the school curriculum as a teachable and learnable competency (Cropley & Cropley, 2010; Rhodes, 1961; Scott, Leritz, & Mumford, 2004) that must be integrated into STEM curricula (Patston, Kaufman, Cropley, & Marrone, 2021; Wingard, Kijima,…”
Imagination and creativity: wellsprings and streams of education – the Taiwan experience
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Bay, S. (2010) · Cited by 27
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Karwowski, M., & Jankowska, D. M. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316212899.019 · Cited by 27
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“People who score high on intuition in psychological tests also tend to score high on creativity and divergent thinking [44], critical attributes for design practice and creativity training [36, 39].”
BackgroundCreativity and Cognition, Divergent Thinking, and Intelligence
Roberts, A. M., Sternberg, R. J., Runco, M. A., Acar, S., Ward, T. B., Kolomyts, Y., & Kaufman, J. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108776721.008 · Cited by 29
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“However, appropriately interpreting the independent effects of these characteristics is contingent on determining the degree to which their impact on the effectiveness of the AAR is dependent on levels of other characteristics (Alfieri et al., 2013; Keiser & Arthur, 2021; Lipsey, 2003; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015; Scott et…”
BackgroundGu, X., Tan, Y., Wu, X., Cai, Z., Lai, Q., Cheng, M., & Zhao, Q. (2022) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101021 · Cited by 30
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“Secondly, there is more than suf fi cient evidence that creative potential can be deliberately developed (e.g., Puccio et al., 2006; Puccio et al., 2020; Rose & Lin, 1984; Scott et al., 2004; Torrance, 1987).”
BackgroundThe effects of classroom goal structures on the creativity of junior high school students
Peng, S.-L., Cherng, B. L., & Chen, H. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.812616 · Cited by 27
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BackgroundSchut, A., Klapwijk, R., Gielen, M. A., van Doorn, F., & de Vries, M. J. (2019) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-019-09528-2 · Cited by 30
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ten Haven, A., Pragt, E., van Luijk, S. J., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., & van Mook, W. (2022) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2022.2072278 · Cited by 30
“After reviewing 156 creativity training programmes, Scott et al. (2004) concluded that a creativity training programme has the most significant positive effect on creative outcomes when it is based on the cognitive capacities of problem finding, conceptual combination and idea generation.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPeterson, D. R., & Pattie, M. W. (2022) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2022.2110738 · Cited by 31
“The most effective creativity training programs emphasize cognitive strategies (G. Scott, Leritz, & Mumford, 2004b) and training has especially large effects on problem solving and divergent thinking outcomes (G. Scott, Leritz, & Mumford, 2004a).”
BackgroundYasin, R. M., & Yunus, N. S. (2014) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v10n3p242 · Cited by 26
“The main difference between the study conducted by Scott et al. (2004) and previous meta-analysis studies is that Scott et al. (2004) had done a more detailed study on internal and external validity.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNurturing Creativity in the Micro-moments of the Classroom
Beghetto, R. A. (2013) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-149-8_2 · Cited by 28
A meta‐analysis of creativity training in organizational settings
McKay, A. S., Reiter‐Palmon, R., Coombes, S. M. T., & Coombs, J. E. (2024) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/caim.12605 · Cited by 32
Determinants of innovative behaviors among self-initiated expatriates
Hussain, T., Iren, P., & Rice, J. (2019) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-09-2018-0321 · Cited by 25
Cioca, L., & Nerişanu, R. A. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12051985 · Cited by 25
“The combination technique refers to combining different attributes with an apparent unlinked object and may be used when there is a need to remember a list of information presented in various forms [50].”
BackgroundKim, J. (2020) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20365 · Cited by 30
“…literature has shown that factors such as idea production programs, motivation, innovative teaching methods, open-ended tasks, and interdisciplinary activities are useful in the development of students' creative potential (e.g., Katz-Buonincontro, Hass, & Friedman, 2017; Scott et al., 2004).”
BackgroundSpoon, R., Rubenstein, L. D., & Terwillegar, S. R. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100792 · Cited by 30
A Minimal Theory of Creative Ability
Stevenson, C. E., Baas, M., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9010009 · Cited by 34
Factors affecting “employees’ creativity”: the mediating role of intrinsic motivation
Yesuf, Y. M., Getahun, D. A., & Debas, A. T. (2023) · Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1186/s13731-023-00299-8 · Cited by 25
Egana-delSol, P. A. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00187-6 · Cited by 35
“57 .”
Effectiveness of 4Ps Creativity Teaching for College Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Response Time Reduction Due to Retesting in Mental Speed Tests: A Meta-Analysis
Scharfen, J., Blum, D., & Holling, H. (2018) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence6010006 · Cited by 28
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“Indeed, a meta-analysis (Scott et al., 2004) found creative training positively affects performance outcomes, and that effect may be maintained over time.”
BackgroundHeuristics as a Basis for Assessing Creative Potential: Measures, Methods, and Contingencies
Vessey, W. B., & Mumford, M. D. (2012) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2012.652928 · Cited by 24
“Although the assessment of heuristics does appear to be a viable method for assessing creativity (Scott et al., 2004), there are a number of constraints on the effectiveness of these methods.”
BackgroundMethodCreativity and Problem-Based Learning (PBL): A Neglected Relation
Neber, H., & Neuhaus, B. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4021-93-7_4 · Cited by 24
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“Creative thinking is related to trained cognitive processes rather than to innate talents such as increased working memory, mental management and object manipulation (Scott, Leritz, & Mumford, 2004; Ritter & Mostert, 2016).”
BackgroundDemocratizing Creativity by Enhancing Imagery and Agency: A Review and Meta-Analysis
Karwowski, M., Zielińska, A., & Jankowska, D. M. (2022) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x221084337 · Cited by 24
“In the second stage, we reviewed the studies included in previous meta-analyses (e.g., Tsai, 2014; Scott et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThere's No Such Thing as Creativity
Baer, J. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009064637 · Cited by 26
Imitation and Creativity: Beneficial Effects of Propulsion Strategies and Specificity
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Effects of Positive Mood on Generative and Evaluative Thinking in Creative Problem Solving
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Creatively Gifted Students are not like Other Gifted Students
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La Creatividad desde la Perspectiva de Estudiantes Universitarios
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Understanding and enhancing personal transfer of creative learning
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Morais, M. D. F., & Almeida, L. S. (2019) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/1982-0275201936e180011 · Cited by 23
Watts, L. L., McIntosh, T. J., Gibson, C., Mulhearn, T. J., Medeiros, K. E., Mecca, J. T., & Cohen‐Charash, Y. (2019) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.427 · Cited by 22
Enhance creative performance via exposure to examples: The role of cognitive thinking style
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Antecedents of Organisational Creativity: A Multi-Level Approach
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Student perspectives on creative pedagogy: Considerations for the Age of AI
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Kaufman, J. C. (2018) · Creativity Theories – Research – Applications · doi:10.1515/ctra-2018-0008 · Cited by 25
An Exploration of Creativity in Primary School Children
Cropley, D. H. (2018) · The International Journal of Creativity and Problem Solving · Cited by 21
Developing children's language creativity through telling stories – An experimental study
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Fostering creative minds: what predicts and boosts design competence in the classroom?
Tran, K. N., Kudrowitz, B. M., & Koutstaal, W. (2020) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09598-7 · Cited by 28
Rastelli, C., Greco, A., & Finocchiaro, C. (2020) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence8040043 · Cited by 25
“Creativity: recently, and in part motivated by Amabile’s Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT) (Amabile 1983), researchers have advocated the use of subjective scoring approaches, according to which a panel of experts rates the generated uses directly on creativity (Scott et al. 2004).”
BackgroundShining (blue) light on creative ability
Abdullah, S., Czerwinski, M. P., Mark, G. J., & Johns, P. (2016) · ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp) · doi:10.1145/2971648.2971751 · Cited by 21
“To this end, creativity training has been shown to improve divergent thinking and problem solving across domains and applications [76].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCommentary: Measuring divergent thinking: Is there really one solution to the problem?
Mumford, M. D., Vessey, W. B., & Barrett, J. D. (2008) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/1931-3896.2.2.86 · Cited by 21
Development of originality under inbreeding: A case of life science labs in Japan
Shibayama, S. (2021) · Higher Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/hequ.12315 · Cited by 21
Mets, T., Raudsaar, M., Vahejõe, K., Kaseorg, M., & Vettik-Leemet, P. (2022) · Administrative Sciences · doi:10.3390/admsci12020067 · Cited by 25
Undergraduates’ Barriers to Creative Thought and Innovative in a New Millennial Era
Nordin, N., & Malik, M. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.136 · Cited by 20
Borderlands: developing character strengths for a knowmadic world
Hokanson, B., & Karlson, R. W. (2013) · On the Horizon The International Journal of Learning Futures · doi:10.1108/10748121311323003 · Cited by 20
“In a meta-analysis involving 70 studies evaluating creativity training, Scott (2004) evaluated a number of differentiating factors in creativity training.”
BackgroundDivergent Thinking Promotes Deductive Reasoning in Preschoolers
de Chantal, P., Gagnon‐St‐Pierre, É., & Markovits, H. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13278 · Cited by 20
Riga, V., & Chronopoulou, E. (2012) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004279.2012.692700 · Cited by 20
“Researchers (Soriano de Alencar 1991; Scott, Leritz, and Mumford 2004; Hosseini and Watt 2010) highlight the necessity of training programmes on creative teaching, in order for teachers to be aware of the need to develop children’s creative thinking, to expand their own creative thinking abilities…”
BackgroundThe Effect of Negotiator Creativity on Negotiation Outcomes in a Bilateral Negotiation
Pauw, A. D., Venter, D., & Neethling, K. (2011) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2011.545734 · Cited by 20
“Scott, Leritz, and Mumford ( 2004 ) concluded in their review that creativity training is effective and positively related to divergent thinking, problem solving, performance, attitudes, and behaviors.”
BackgroundCognitive processes associated with creativity : scale development and validation
Miller, A. (2009) · Cardinal Scholar (Ball State University) · Cited by 20
The Impact of Creativity Training on an Accounting Negotiation
ogilvie, D., & Simms, S. V. K. (2008) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-008-9124-z · Cited by 19
Azevedo, I., Morais, M. D. F., & Martins, F. (2017) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.175 · Cited by 21
“These results further support the positive effects of training programs for CPS skills in general (Ma, 2006; Scott et al., 2004a,b) and of the FPSP in particular (Cramond, 2009; Kaufman, 2012; Woythal, 2014).”
ResultPotters, O., van Schijndel, T. J. P., Jak, S., & Voogt, J. M. (2023) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100532 · Cited by 32
Creative Failure: Why Can't People Solve Creative Problems
Mumford, M. D., Martin, R., Elliott, S., & McIntosh, T. J. (2018) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.372 · Cited by 21
Toader, A. F., & Kessler, T. (2018) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2018.1530912 · Cited by 22
Sun, J., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., Meng, J., Chen, Q., Yang, W., Wei, D., & Qiu, J. (2019) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-019-00077-9 · Cited by 20
“We also proposed several hypotheses based on previous studies (Ma 2006; Scott et al. 2004).”
BackgroundMethodService creativity reinforcement and firm performance
Tsai, K., & Huang, S. C. (2019) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-02-2018-0041 · Cited by 20
Person-oriented profiles of originality and fluency in divergent thinking responses
Cotter, K. N., Ivčević, Z., & Moeller, J. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103941 · Cited by 19
Conjuring up creativity: the effect of performing magic tricks on divergent thinking
Wiseman, R. J., Wiles, A., & Watt, C. A. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.11289 · Cited by 19
Ligon, G. S., Graham, K. A., Edwards, A., Osburn, H. K., & Hunter, S. T. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374714-3.00025-2 · Cited by 19
A Comparison of the Effects of Ethics Training on International and US Students
Steele, L. M., Johnson, J. F., Watts, L. L., MacDougall, A. E., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., & Williams, T. (2015) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-015-9678-5 · Cited by 21
“In addition, a meta-analysis of complex problem-solving training interventions showed that the strategy-based interventions were most effective (Scott et al. 2004).”
BackgroundBecoming original: effects of strategy instruction
van de Kamp, M., Admiraal, W., & Rijlaarsdam, G. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9384-y · Cited by 24
“This was based on an effect study about creativity training (Scott et al. 2004).”
MethodCropley, A. J. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375038-9.00216-8 · Cited by 19
Creativity Talent Development: Fostering Creativity in Schools
Lassig, C. J. (2019) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-3021-6_49-1 · Cited by 19
Smogorzewska, J. (2011) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2011.12.003 · Cited by 18
Using Scratch to foster creativity behind bars: Two positive experiences in jail
Bayón, J. B., & Garaizar, P. (2015) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.08.003 · Cited by 19
Ideas are cheap: When and why adults value labor over ideas.
Burgmer, P., Forstmann, M., & Stavrova, O. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000473 · Cited by 20
Creativity: Can It Be Trained? A Scientific Educology of Creativity.
Karkockienė, D. (2005) · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Oklahoma (US)
- Venue
- Creativity Research Journal
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2004-12-01
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 361-388
- ISSN
- 1040-0419 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6934
- OpenAlex
- W2148809109
- Cited by
- 1,132
- References
- 172
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 60 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 65 · 2013: 45 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 12.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Creativity Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Creativity in Education and Neuroscience
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Design Education and Practice
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- creativity training, creativity development, training program effectiveness, program evaluation, cognitive skills, heuristics, transfer of training, internal validity
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