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Cited by 768Educational Methods and AnalysisEducation and Critical Thinking DevelopmentInnovations in Education and Learning Technologies

Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education

Open access
Thornhill-Miller, Branden, Camarda, Anaëlle, Mercier, Maxence, Burkhardt, Jean-Marie, Morisseau, Tiffany, Bourgeois-Bougrine, Samira, Vinchon, Florent, El Hayek, Stephanie +5 more·2023·Journal of Intelligence
DOI 10.3390/jintelligence11030054PMC PMC10054602
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Abstract

This article addresses educational challenges posed by the future of work, examining “21st century skills”, their conception, assessment, and valorization. It focuses in particular on key soft skill competencies known as the “4Cs”: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. In a section on each C, we provide an overview of assessment at the level of individual performance, before focusing on the less common assessment of systemic support for the development of the 4Cs that can be measured at the institutional level (i.e., in schools, universities, professional training programs, etc.). We then present the process of official assessment and certification known as “labelization”, suggesting it as a solution both for establishing a publicly trusted assessment of the 4Cs and for promoting their cultural valorization. Next, two variations of the “International Institute for Competency Development’s 21st Century Skills Framework” are presented. The first of these comprehensive systems allows for the assessment and labelization of the extent to which development of the 4Cs is supported by a formal educational program or institution. The second assesses informal educational or training experiences, such as playing a game. We discuss the overlap between the 4Cs and the challenges of teaching and institutionalizing them, both of which may be assisted by adopting a dynamic interactionist model of the 4Cs—playfully entitled “Crea-Critical-Collab-ication”—for pedagogical and policy-promotion purposes. We conclude by briefly discussing opportunities presented by future research and new technologies such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality.

Verified 2026-10-10 · 1 reference not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual article argues that the “4Cs”—creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration—should be taught, assessed, and promoted together as core 21st century skills. It proposes “labelization” and two International Institute for Competency Development frameworks for assessing institutional support for the 4Cs and for evaluating informal learning activities such as games.

Key findings

  • The article positions the 4Cs as higher-order transversal “meta-competencies” and proposes a “Dynamic Interactionist Model of the 4Cs,” playfully called “Crea-Critical-Collab-ication,” to capture their overlap and support pedagogy, assessment, and policy promotion.
  • It presents the International Institute for Competency Development’s 4Cs Assessment Framework for institutions and programs, which divides each C into three components and assesses them across seven dimensions.
  • For informal contexts, it presents a games evaluation framework in which each C has five components; subcomponents are rated yes/no for whether they are “possible” and “required for success,” and if 60% (three of five) or more subcomponents are positively rated as required, the general component is considered required; if 60% or more components are positively rated as required, the game is labelized as potentially effective for training and improving that C.
  • It cites the World Economic Forum’s 2020 “Future of Jobs Report,” studying 15 industries in 26 advanced and emerging countries, as indicating that up to 50% of employees will need some degree of reskilling by 2025.

Methods

  • Design: conceptual and review article, not an empirical study; it synthesizes literature on each of the 4Cs and proposes assessment, certification, and promotion frameworks.
  • Data or sample: no primary sample or empirical dataset is reported; the IICD frameworks are described as based on expert opinion and a review of available literature, developed with international experts, teachers, and researchers from the University of Paris Cité, Oxford University, and AFNOR UK.
  • Main analysis: narrative synthesis and framework development; no statistical analysis is reported, though the games framework specifies a 60% threshold rule for rating components and labelizing a game’s potential effectiveness.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the complexity of the 4Cs’ definitions makes them difficult to assess in terms of both reliability and validity.
  • The paper states that a definitive taxonomy and measurement model are still lacking and might only be established through large-scale administration of a comprehensive battery of skill-measuring psychometric tests on appropriate cross sections of society.
  • Evident from the text: the proposed IICD frameworks and labelization process are presented as expert- and literature-based tools, but the article reports no empirical validation, reliability data, or outcome data for them.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/jintelligence11030054

Cites

167 of 169 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 116 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationcitation

    The presence and importance of the 4Cs as higher-order skills is evident in both sets of empirical results.

    “Despite the fact that both these studies necessarily involved assumptions and interpretive grouping of variables, the presence and importance of the 4Cs as higher-order skills is evident in both sets of empirical results.”
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    • cites Lamri et al. 2022

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    No large-scale study has employed a comprehensive enough range of actual psychometric measures of soft skills to produce a definitive empirical taxonomy.

    “Even having defined soft skills as a potentially more narrow and manageable focus, we are still aware of no large-scale study that has employed a comprehensive enough range of actual psychometric measures of soft skills in a manner that might help produce a definitive empirical taxonomy.”
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  • Premisecitation

    The teaching and development of the 4Cs will require a complex intervention and mobilization of educational and socio-economic resources, including a major shift in pedagogical techniques and fundamental changes in institutional structures.

    “Taking them as our focus, we note, however, that the teaching and development of the 4Cs will require a complex intervention and mobilization of educational and socio-economic resources—both a major shift in pedagogical techniques and even more fundamental changes in institutional structures (Ananiadoui and Claro 2009).”
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  • Premisecitation

    These heuristics can be a source of errors, in particular, in tricky reasoning situations.

    “However, these heuristics (i.e., automatisms) can be a source of errors, in particular, in tricky reasoning situations, as demonstrated in the field of reasoning, arithmetic problems (Kahneman 2003) or even divergent thinking tasks (Cassotti et al. 2016; for a review of biases, see Friedman 2017).”
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  • Premisecitation

    Critical thinking is central to intelligence and adaptability.

    “CT is central to better outcomes in daily life and general problem solving (Hitchcock 2020), to intelligence and adaptability (Halpern and Dunn 2021), and to academic achievement (Ren et al. 2020).”
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    Premisenone given

    The 4Cs are multidimensional, interrelated, and transdisciplinary.

    “One very important issue for understanding the 4Cs and their educational implementation related to this, which can simultaneously facilitate their teaching but be a challenge for their assessment, is the multidimensionality, interrelatedness, and transdisciplinary relevance of the 4Cs.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The 4Cs can be seen as highest-level transversal skills-or 'meta-competencies'-that allow individuals to remain competent and to develop their potential in a rapidly changing professional world.

    “Gathering support from researchers and industry alike, we suggest that the 4Cs can be seen as highest-level transversal skills—or “meta-competencies”—that allow individuals to remain competent and to develop their potential in a rapidly changing professional world.”
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    Premisecitation

    The term '21st century skills' has been rightly criticized because the skills referred to are not all unique to or uniquely important to the 21st century, and the term is often used as an advertising or promotional label.

    “Other important organizations such as the World Economic Forum (2015) have produced similar overarching models of “21st century skills’’ with the 4Cs at their center, but the term “21st century skills’’ has been rightly criticized for a several reasons: the skills referred to are not actually all unique to, or uniquely important to, the 21st century, and it is a term that is often used more as an”
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    Premisecitation

    Researchers, teachers, employers, and public policymakers around the world have long ranked the development of critical thinking abilities as one of the highest educational priorities and public needs in modern democratic societies.

    “Researchers, teachers, employers, and public policymakers around the world have long ranked the development of critical thinking (CT) abilities as one of the highest educational priorities and public needs in modern democratic societies (Ahern et al. 2019; Dumitru et al. 2018; Pasquinelli et al. 2021).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Creativity and critical thinking are inextricably linked and are often two sides of the same coin.

    “Indeed, it can be argued that creativity and critical thinking are inextricably linked and are often two sides of the same coin.”
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    Premisecitation

    Design thinking-related programs now exist around the world and have been shown to have a substantial impact on creative outcomes.

    “Indeed, many helpful design thinking-related programs now exist around the world and have been shown to have a substantial impact on creative outcomes (Bourgeois-Bougrine 2022).”
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    Premisecitation

    World-wide data suggest that neither money nor mere time spent in class correlate well with educational outcomes.

    “Indeed, though world-wide data suggest that neither money nor mere time spent in class correlate well with educational outcomes, both policies and pedagogy that direct the ways in which time is spent make a significant difference (Schleicher 2022).”
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    Premisecitation

    Reaching a consensus on a definition of critical thinking has been difficult, because critical thinking relies on the coordination of many different skills and is involved in many different domains.

    “Although much research has addressed both potentially related constructs, such as intelligence and wisdom, and lists of potential component aspects of human thought, such as inductive or deductive reasoning (for reviews of all of these, see Sternberg and Funke 2019), reaching a consensus on a definition has been difficult, because CT relies on the coordination of many different skills (Bellaera et”
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    • cites Lewis and Smith 1993

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    Premisecitation

    Creative production in any domain needs to be balanced by critical appraisal and thought at each step of the creative process.

    “Conversely, creative production in any domain needs to be balanced by critical appraisal and thought at each step of the creative process (Bailin 1988).”
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    Premisecitation

    The characteristics of the ideal critical thinker are also characteristic of the creative individual, as is the ability to imagine alternatives, which is often cited as a component of critical thinking ability.

    “These characteristics, one might note, are also characteristic of the “creative individual” (Facione 1990b; Lai 2011), as is the ability to imagine alternatives, which is often cited as a component of critical thinking ability (Facione 1990b; Halpern 1998).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The 4Cs provide a relatively simple, persuasive, targetable core that has been found to constitute a pedagogically and policy-friendly model by major organizations and is gaining additional empirical validity.

    “The 4Cs, on the other hand, seem to provide a relatively simple, persuasive, targetable core that has been found to constitute a pedagogically and policy-friendly model by major organizations, and that also now seems to be gaining some additional empirical validity.”
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    Premisecitation

    Having the skills to perform aspects of critical thinking in a given domain does not necessarily entail also having the metacognitive ability to know when to engage in which of its aspects, or having the disposition, attitude, or 'mindset' that motivates one to actually engage in them-all of which are actually required to be a good critical thinker.

    “Furthermore, as a transversal competency, having the skills to perform aspects of critical thinking in a given domain does not necessarily entail also having the metacognitive ability to know when to engage in which of its aspects, or having the disposition, attitude, or “mindset” that motivates one to actually engage in them—all of which are actually required to be a good critical thinker (Fac”
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    Premisenone given

    Various comprehensive '21st century skills' systems proposed in the past without much empirical verification seem to have been found too complex and cumbersome for implementation.

    “Various comprehensive “21st century skills” systems proposed in the past without much empirical verification also seem to have been found too complex and cumbersome for implementation.”
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    Premisecitation

    The presence of others tends to reduce the number of ideas generated and to induce a fixation on a limited number of ideas conforming to those produced by others.

    “For example, unless guarded against, the presence of others tends to reduce the number of ideas generated and to induce a fixation on a limited number of ideas conforming to those produced by others (Camarda et al. 2021; Goldenberg and Wiley 2011; Kohn and Smith 2011; Paulus and Dzindolet 1993; Putman and Paulus 2009; Rietzschel et al. 2006).”
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    Premisecitation

    Various researchers emphasize the need to create more advanced evaluation methods for critical thinking.

    “Consequently, various researchers have suggested ways to improve analytic methods, and they emphasize the need to create more advanced evaluation methods (Brookfield 1997; Liu et al. 2014).”
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    Premisecitation

    Understanding what makes effective collaboration is of crucial importance for professional practice and training.

    “Understanding what makes effective collaboration is of crucial importance for professional practice and training (Détienne et al. 2012; Graesser et al. 2018), as evidenced by the long line of research on group or team collaboration over the past 40 years (for a review, see e.g., Salas et al. 2004; Mathieu et al. 2017).”
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    Premisecitation

    Computer-assisted learning methods can be relevant for establishing a secure framework, and anonymity helps overcome anxiety or social blockages linked to fear of public speaking or showing difficulties.

    “Finally, computer-assisted learning methods can be relevant for establishing a secure framework (especially, for example, when learning another language): anonymity indeed helps to overcome anxiety or social blockages linked to fear of public speaking or showing one’s difficulties (AbuSeileek 2012).”
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    Premisereasoning

    Qualitative approaches based on multidimensional views of collaboration provide a more elaborated or nuanced view of collaboration and are useful for identifying potential relationships between distinctive dimensions of collaboration and aspects of team performance.

    “Alternatively, qualitative approaches based on multidimensional views of collaboration provide a more elaborated or nuanced view of collaboration and are useful for identifying potential relationships between distinctive dimensions of collaboration and aspects of team performance, in order to identify processes that could be improved.”
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    Premisecitation

    Critical thinking is a social process that takes place in specific contexts of knowledge and culture.

    “Moreover, as Brookfield (1997) argues, because critical thinking is a social process that takes place in specific contexts of knowledge and culture, it should be assessed as a social process, therefore, involving a multiplicity of experiences, perceptions, and contributions.”
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    Premisecitation

    Communication skills are supported by different abilities, classically conceptualized as motivational functions, knowledge, or cognitive and socio-cognitive functions, implying different specific types of evaluations.

    “Moreover, as Spitzberg (2003) pointed out, communication skills are supported by different abilities, classically conceptualized as motivational functions (e.g., confidence and goal-orientation), knowledge (e.g., content and procedural knowledge), or cognitive and socio-cognitive functions (e.g., theory of mind, verbal cognition, emotional intelligence, and empathy; McDonald et al. 2014; Rotherm”
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    Premisecitation

    There is no consensus on a definition of collaboration, but scholars often see it as mutual engagement in a coordinated effort to achieve a common goal involving sharing of goals, resources, and representations, and aspects of mutual respect, trust, responsibilities, and accountability.

    “Although there is no consensus on a definition of collaboration, scholars often see it as mutual engagement in a coordinated effort to achieve a common goal that involves the sharing of goals, resources, and representations relating to the joint activity of participants; and other important aspects relate to mutual respect, trust, responsibilities, and accountability within situational rules and”
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    Executive functions underlying general critical thinking, the ability to overcome bias, and metacognitive processes can all be trained and enhanced by educational programs.

    “The executive functions underlying general critical thinking, the ability to overcome bias (Houdé 2000; Houdé and Borst 2014), and meta-cognitive processes (i.e., meta information about our cognitive strategies) can all be trained and enhanced by educational programs (Abrami et al. 2015; Ahern et al. 2019; Alsaleh 2020; Bellaera et al. 2021; Uribe-Enciso et al. 2017; Popil 2011; Pasquinelli and Br”
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    Premisecitation

    New spaces for collaboration (online digital media, mixed realities) are often difficult to use and less satisfactory than face-to-face interactions, suggesting the need for more research.

    “These new spaces for collaboration are, however, often difficult to use and less satisfactory than face-to-face interactions, suggesting the need for more research on collaborative activities and on how to support them (Faidley 2018; Karl et al. 2022; Kemp and Grieve 2014; Singh et al. 2022; Waizenegger et al. 2020).”
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    Premisecitation

    Individual assessment of critical thinking is challenging because it is a multi-task ability and involves specific knowledge in different areas.

    “The individual assessment of critical thinking skills presents a number of challenges, because it is a multi-task ability and involves specific knowledge in the different areas in which it is applied (Liu et al. 2014; Willingham 2008).”
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    Premisenone given

    Effective collaboration involves skills that have also been identified elsewhere as essential competencies, including communication, creativity, and critical thinking.

    “Note here that effective collaboration involves skills that have also been identified elsewhere as essential competencies, including communication, creativity, and critical thinking.”
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    Premisecitation

    Social/emotional intelligence skills are disparate and difficult to assess.

    “Work on social/emotional intelligence (and on its role in students’ personal and professional success) shows that these skills are both disparate and difficult to assess (Humphrey et al. 2007).”
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    Premisereasoning

    Communication has an obvious link with the three other Cs.

    “Communication has an obvious link with the three other Cs.”
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    Premisecitation

    The integrative concept of 'quality of collaboration' encapsulates much of what is currently known about collaborative processes and what constitutes effective collaboration.

    “The integrative concept of “quality of collaboration” (Burkhardt et al. 2009) encapsulates much of what is currently known about collaborative processes and what constitutes effective collaboration.”
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    Premisecitation

    A large body of methodology for assessing collaboration has focused on quantifying a restricted subset of fine-grained interactions, which has at least two limitations: categories are often ad hoc and difficult to compare, and quantitative variations are non-univocal.

    “A large body of methodology developed to assess collaboration processes and collaborative tools has been focused on quantifying a restricted subset of fine-grained interactions (e.g., number of speakers’ turns; number of words spoken; number of interruptions; amount of grounding questions). This approach has at least two limitations. First, because these categories of analysis are often ad hoc”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Efforts such as labelizing 4C processes will serve to push educators and institutions towards more relevant offerings oriented towards the future of work and helping build a more successful future for all.

    “And we contend that efforts such as labelizing 4C processes will serve to push educators and institutions towards more relevant offerings, oriented towards the future of work and helping build a more successful future for all.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Future-oriented change in institutional practices, programming, and structure will likely meet with significant resistance from entrenched segments of traditional educational and training establishments.
    • Rests on an assumption: Additional external evaluation and monitoring is rarely welcome by workers in any context.
    • Rests on an assumption: Top-down processes from innovative and competition-conscious administrative levels will be met by bottom-up demands from students and education consumers to support institutional changes.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    French companies with corporate social responsibility labels have higher than average growth rates, and adoption of quality standards is linked with a 7% increase in the share of export turnover.

    “Indeed, French companies with corporate social responsibility labels have been shown to have higher than average growth rates, and the adoption of quality standards is linked with a 7% increase in the share of export turnover (Restout 2020).”
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    Premisereasoning

    The best approach to understanding and assessing a particular C is from a combination of different levels and perspectives in context.

    “Similarly, as we have seen in the literature review, the best approach to understanding and assessing a particular C is from a combination of different levels and perspectives in context.”
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    Premisecitation

    Thompson (2020) proposes a four-component operationalized definition of communication for assessment in students.

    “Thompson (2020) proposes a four-component operationalized definition of communication for its assessment in students.”
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    Premisecitation

    Lucas (2019) and colleagues suggested conflating creative thinking and critical thinking to propose 3Cs (creative thinking, communication, and collaboration) as new foundational literacies.

    “Lucas (2019) and colleagues have suggested conflating creative thinking and critical thinking in order to propose “3Cs” (creative thinking, communication, and collaboration) as new “foundational literacies” to symmetrically add to the 3Rs (Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic) of previous educational eras.”
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    Premisecitation

    The International Institute for Competency Development's 4Cs Assessment Framework is a comprehensive attempt to operationalize programmatic-level and institutional-level support for the development of the 4Cs.

    “One comprehensive attempt to operationalize programmatic-level and institutional-level support for the development of the 4Cs is the International Institute for Competency Development’s 4Cs Assessment Framework (International Institute for Competency Development 2021).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Games are a significant potential pathway for the improvement of the 4Cs and merit the same attention as more formal ways of learning and developing competencies.

    “We argue that games are a significant potential pathway for the improvement of the 4Cs, and as such, they merit the same attention as more formal ways of learning and developing competencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If a game presents affordances conducive to exercising a given skill, engaged playing of that game should help improve that skill.

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    Premisereasoning

    The validity of the assessment process for labeling is reinforced by a double evaluation: a first level of audit by experts and a second level of decision making assuring conformity with the reference framework.

    “The validity of the assessment process is reinforced by this double evaluation: a first level of audit carried out by a team of experts according to a clearly defined set of criteria and a second level of decision making assuring that the methodology and the result of the audit are in conformity with the defined reference framework.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    It ranges from impossible to suboptimal to teach one of the 4Cs without involving one or more of the others, and this commingling underscores the need and appropriateness of assessing them together.

    “As a result, it ranges from impossible to suboptimal to teach (or teach towards) one of the 4Cs without involving one or more of the others, and this commingling also underscores the genuine need and appropriateness of assessing them together.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Games cannot directly be compared to the complexity of a school curriculum and all the programs it contains.

    “games, complex and deep as they can sometimes be, cannot directly be compared to the complexity of a school curriculum and all the programs it contains.”
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    Premisecitation

    Games are activities present and participated in throughout human society by people of all ages, genders, and socio-economic statuses.

    “Games are activities that are present and participated in throughout human society—by those of all ages, genders, and socio-economic statuses (Bateson and Martin 2013; Huizinga 1949; Malaby 2007).”
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    Premisecitation

    Lamri and Lubart (2021) found that a certain base level of creativity was necessary but not sufficient for success in managerial tasks, while high-level performance required a combination of all four Cs.

    “Lamri and Lubart (2021), for example, found a certain base level of creativity was a necessary but not sufficient condition for success in managerial tasks, but that high-level performance required a combination of all four Cs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lamri and Lubart (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The IICD evaluation grid divides each of the 4Cs into three components and assesses each across seven dimensions designed to cover the pedagogical process and educational context.

    “Based upon expert opinion and a review of the available literature, this evaluation grid is a practical tool that divides each of the 4Cs into three “user-friendly” but topic-covering components (see Table 1 and definitions and further discussion in the sections that follow). Each of these components is then assessed across seven dimensions (see Table 2, below), designed to cover concisely the ped”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Thompson's definition includes a comprehension strand covering understanding and selection of adequate information from a range of sources.

    “First, they describe a comprehension strand covering the understanding and selection of adequate information from a range of sources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The aim of labelization frameworks is to assist in the development of 'quality culture' in education by offering independent, reliable means of benchmarking, charting progress, and distinguishing institutions based on their capacity to support and promote crucial skills.

    “The aim of these labelization frameworks is to assist in the development of “quality culture” in education by offering individual programs, institutions, and systems additional independent, reliable means of benchmarking, charting progress, and distinguishing themselves based on their capacity to support and promote the development of crucial skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evans (2020) identified four main collaboration skills consistently mentioned in the scientific literature that are assessed in the IICD grid: planning and making group decisions, communicating about thinking with the group, contributing resources/ideas/efforts and supporting group members, and monitoring/reflecting/adapting individual and group processes.

    “Evans (2020) identified four main collaboration skills consistently mentioned in the scientific literature that are assessed in the IICD grid”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evans (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Thompson's definition describes recognition of cultural and other differences as an important aspect of communication.

    “Finally, Thompson (2020) describes the recognition of cultural and other differences as an important aspect of communication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The world of education is particularly concerned by the need to develop and assess 21st century skills because it is the first link in the chain of skills acquisition.

    “The world of education is particularly concerned by the need to develop and assess 21st century skills, because it represents the first link in the chain of skills acquisition, preparing the human resources of tomorrow.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The complexity of the 4Cs definitions makes them difficult to assess in terms of both reliability and validity.

    “At the same time, the complexity of their definitions makes them difficult to assess, both in terms of reliability (assessment must not vary from one measurement to another) and of validity (tests must measure that which they are intended to measure).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Thompson's definition includes presentation of information and ideas in several modes adjusted to the intended audience, verbally and non-verbally.

    “Second, the presentation of information and ideas is mentioned in several different modes, adjusted to the intended audience, verbally as well as non-verbally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In an educational assessment of collaborative problem solving, two main underpinning skills are the social skill of audience awareness and the cognitive skill of planning and executing.

    “two main underpinning skills were described for the assessment: the social skill of audience awareness (“how to adapt one’s own behavior to suit the needs of the task and the partner’s requirements”, Care et al. 2016, p. 258) and the cognitive skill of planning and executing”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Care et al. 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The most definitive taxonomy and measurement model currently lacking might only be established based on large-scale administration of a comprehensive battery of skill-measuring psychometric tests on appropriate cross sections of society.

    “But the most definitive sort of taxonomy and measurement model that we are currently lacking might only be established based on the large-scale administration of a comprehensive battery of skill-measuring psychometric tests on appropriate cross sections of society.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Thompson's definition notes the importance of communication technology and its advanced use.

    “Third, the authors note the importance of communication technology and its advanced use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    A label's effectiveness is closely linked to the choice of requirements in its specifications and to the independence and rigor of the verifying body.

    “Its effectiveness is therefore closely linked to the choice of requirements set out in its specifications, as well as to the independence and rigor of the body that verifies compliance with the criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The individual importance of, and distinct differences between, creative thinking and critical thinking support preserving them both as separate constructs to encourage the greatest development of each.

    “we believe that the individual importance of, and distinct differences between, creative thinking and critical thinking support preserving them both as separate constructs in order to encourage the greatest development of each of them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The grid can be used by institutions for self-evaluation, as a list of criteria for external evaluation, and as a long-term development targeting tool.

    “The grid itself can be used in several important and different ways by different educational stakeholders: (1) by the institution itself in its self-evaluation and possible preparation for a certification or labelization process, (2) as an explicit list of criteria for external evaluation of the institution and its 4Cs-related programs, and (3) as a potential long-term development targeting tool”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In France, quality certification is seen as 'important' or 'significant' by 76% of companies, and decision makers feel more confident and are more willing to invest with third-party approval.

    “Taking France as an example, research shows that quality certification is seen as “important” or “significant” by 76% of companies (Chameroy and Veran 2014), and decision makers feel more confident and are more willing to invest with the support of third-party approval than if their decision is merely based on the brand’s reputation or its demonstrated level of social responsibility (Etilé and Te”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chameroy and Veran 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Etilé and Teyssier 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent efforts to clarify the conceptual overlap and hierarchical relations of soft skills for the future of education and work have been helpful and promising.

    “Recent efforts to clarify the conceptual overlap and hierarchical relations of soft skills for the future of education and work, for example, have been helpful and promising (e.g., Joie-La Marle et al. 2022; Lamri et al. 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Joie-La Marle et al. 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lamri et al. 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The dynamic interactionist model suggests that creativity and critical thinking often place greater emphasis on cognitive or individual elements, while communication and collaboration more centrally involve social and interpersonal aspects.

    “This model goes further to suggest some dimensional differences in emphases that, roughly speaking, also often exist among the 4Cs: that is to say, the frequently greater emphasis on cognitive or individual elements at play in creativity and critical thinking in comparison to the social and interpersonal aspects more central to communication and collaboration (Thornhill-Miller 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thornhill-Miller 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    There is no collaboration without communication, and even ostensibly individual creativity is a collaboration of sorts with the general culture and precursors in a given field.

    “Similarly, among many other interrelationships, there is no collaboration without communication—and even ostensibly individual creativity is a “collaboration” of sorts with the general culture and precursors in a given field.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The specific criteria to detect support for each C can vary depending upon the educational context (formal/institutional vs. informal/activity level).

    “the specific criteria to detect support for each C can vary depending upon the educational context (e.g., formal and institutional level or informal and at the activity level).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Thornhill-Miller (2021) proposed a dynamic interactionist model of the 4Cs and their interrelated contributions to the future of education and work.

    “Thornhill-Miller (2021) proposed a “dynamic interactionist model of the 4Cs” and their interrelated contributions to the future of education and work.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thornhill-Miller (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recent developments make it clear that the 4Cs will be enhanced and changed by interaction with artificial intelligence, and 4Cs-related skills will probably increasingly constitute the core of available human work in the future.

    “For example, the recent developments make it clear that the 4Cs will be enhanced and changed by interaction with artificially intelligence, even as 4Cs-related skills will probably, for the same reason, increasingly constitute the core of available human work in the future (see, e.g., Ross 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ross 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The promotion, teaching, and assessment of the 4Cs will require a complex social intervention and mobilization of educational resources-a major shift in pedagogy and institutional structures.

    “The promotion, teaching, and assessment of the 4Cs will require a complex social intervention and mobilization of educational resources—a major shift in pedagogy and institutional structures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The 4Cs framework seems to be a manageable, focused model for modernizing education and is worthy of its growing prevalence in the educational and research marketplace.

    “In the end, the 4Cs framework seems to be a manageable, focused model for modernizing education, and one worthy of its growing prevalence in the educational and research marketplace for a number of reasons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 4Cs have benefitted from subsequent promotion by organizations such as the OECD and the World Economic Forum, as well as some more direct support from recent empirical research.
64 of 64

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    If a game presents affordances conducive to exercising a given skill, engaged playing of that game should help improve that skill.

    “The evaluation of a game’s effectiveness for training/improving a given C rests on the following principle: if a game presents affordances conducive to exercising a given skill, engaged playing of that game should help improve that skill.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Future-oriented change in institutional practices, programming, and structure will likely meet with significant resistance from entrenched segments of traditional educational and training establishments.

    “The sort of future-oriented change and development required by this shift in institutional practices, programming, and structure will likely meet with significant resistance from comfortably entrenched (and often outdated) segments of traditional educational and training establishments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Additional external evaluation and monitoring is rarely welcome by workers in any context.

    “Additional external evaluation and monitoring is rarely welcome by workers in any context.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Top-down processes from innovative and competition-conscious administrative levels will be met by bottom-up demands from students and education consumers to support institutional changes.

    “We believe, however, that top-down processes from the innovative and competition-conscious administrative levels will be met by bottom-up demands from students and education consumers to support these institutional changes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 4Cs have benefitted from subsequent promotion by organizations such as the OECD and the World Economic Forum, as well as some more direct support from recent empirical research.

    “In addition, the 4Cs have benefitted from their subsequent promotion by organizations such as the OECD and the World Economic Forum, as well as some more direct support from recent empirical research.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Constructivist active learning pedagogies are widely theorized as tools for nurturing transferable 21st-century skills including creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, leadership, and technology proficiency.

    “Constructivist active learning pedagogies are widely theorized as tools for nurturing transferable 21st-century skills including creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, leadership, and technology proficiency9.”

    From Project based learning framework integrating industry collaboration to enhance student future readiness in higher education (2025) · cites this paper as [9]

    Sections 2.1–2.4 describe pedagogical approaches for developing the four Cs, and §2.4 identifies leadership as a transferable collaboration skill. The paper does not establish technology proficiency as an outcome of those approaches or characterize them collectively as constructivist active-learning pedagogies. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Thornhill-Miller et al. write in terms of assessment of 21st-century skills and make a call to action for practical examples of such evaluations.

    “Thornhill-Miller et al.9write in terms of assessment of 21st-century skills and specifically make a call to action for practical examples of such evaluations.”

    From Project based learning framework integrating industry collaboration to enhance student future readiness in higher education (2025) · cites this paper as [9]

    The Abstract and Introduction discuss assessing 21st-century skills and say that practical means of assessment remain underdeveloped. The paper presents evaluation frameworks and calls for improved assessment, but the passages found do not make the more specific call for practical examples of evaluations. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 23

  1. Barnett, Ronald (2015). The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education, Palgrave Macmillan US.
  2. Bourgeois-Bougrine, Samira (2022). The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible, Springer International Publishing.
  3. Burkhardt, Jean-Marie, Détienne, Françoise, Hébert, Anne-Marie, and Perron, Laurence (2009). Human-Computer Interaction—INTERACT 2009, Springer.
  4. Doyle, Denise (2021). Creativity in the Twenty First Century. Edited by Anna Hui and Christian Wagner, Springer International Publishing.
  5. Dumitru, Daniela, Bigu, Dragos, Elen, Jan, Ahern, Aoife, McNally, Ciaran, and O’Sullivan, John (2018). A European Review on Critical Thinking Educational Practices in Higher Education Institutions, UTAD. Available online: http://repositorio.utad.pt/handle/10348/8320.
  6. Evans, Carla (2020). Measuring Student Success Skills: A Review of the Literature on Collaboration, National Center for the Improvement of Educational Assessment.
  7. Edward, Nouri Zalta (2020). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition), Stanford University.
  8. Huizinga, Johan (1949). Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Elements in Culture, Routledge.
  9. Keefer, Kateryna V., Parker, James D. A., and Saklofske, Donald H. (2018). The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality, Springer International Publishing.
  10. Matthews, Danielle (2014). Pragmatic Development in First Language Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. · DOI
  11. Moore, Brooke Noel, and Parker, Richard (2016). Critical Thinking, McGraw-Hill Education. [20th ed.].
  12. Proctor, Robert W., and Dutta, Addie (1995). Skill Acquisition and Human Performance, Sage Publications, Inc.
  13. Reiman, Joey (1992). Success: The Original Handbook, Longstreet Press.
  14. Rhodes, 1961, An Analysis of Creativity, The Phi Delta Kappan, 42, 305
  15. Salas, Eduardo, Stagl, Kevin C., and Burke, C. Shawn (2004). International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
  16. Scialabba, 1984, Mindplay, Harvard Magazine, 16, 19
  17. Matson, Johnny L. (2008). Clinical Assessment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Elsevier.
  18. Sternberg, Robert J. (1999). Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press.
  19. Spada, Hans, Meier, Anne, Rummel, Nikol, and Hauser, Sabine (2005). Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning Learning 2005: The next 10 Years!—CSCL’05, Taipei, Taiwan, May 30–June 4, Association for Computational Linguistics.
  20. Thompson, Jeri (2020). Measuring Student Success Skills: A Review of the Literature on Complex Communication, National Center for the Improvement of Educational Assessment.
  21. van Rosmalen, Peter, Boyle, Elizabeth A., Nadolski, Rob, van der Baaren, John, Fernández-Manjón, Baltasar, MacArthur, Ewan, Pennanen, Tiina, Manea, Madalina, and Star, Kam (2014). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer International Publishing.
  22. Watson, Goodwin, and Glaser, Edwin M. (2010). Technical Manual and User’s Guide, Pearson.
  23. Whitmore, Paul G. (, January December). What are soft skills. Paper presented at the CONARC Soft Skills Conference, Fort Bliss, TX, USA.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J.-M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Vinchon, F., El Hayek, S., Augereau-Landais, M., Mourey, F., Feybesse, C., Sundquist, D., & Lubart, T.
Affiliations
  • University of Oxford (GB)
  • Université Paris Cité (FR)
  • LaPEA, Université Paris Cité and Univ Gustave Eiffel, 92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France
  • AFNOR International, 93210 Saint-Denis, France
  • Association Française de Normalisation (FR)
  • Centre Hospitalier Guillaume Régnier (FR)
Corresponding author
Thornhill-Miller, Branden
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Intelligence
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2023-03-15
Volume
11
Issue
3
Pages
54
ISSN
2079-3200 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/jintelligence11030054
PMC
PMC10054602
OpenAlex
W4327597860
Cited by
768
References
148
Citations by year
2026: 242 · 2025: 308 · 2024: 187 · 2023: 31
FWCI
46.92
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Intelligence (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Educational Methods and Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education and Critical Thinking Development
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Innovations in Education and Learning Technologies
Keywords
21st century skills, 4Cs, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, soft skills, skill assessment, certification, competency framework, institutional evaluation, informal learning, play-based learning, future of work, education policy, interactionist model

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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