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Cultural Issues in Disclosures of Child Sexual Abuse
Abstract
Cultural norms affect the likelihood that child sexual abuse will be discovered by an adult or disclosed by a child. Cultural norms also affect whether abused children's families will report child sexual abuse to authorities. This article explores the ways ethnic and religious culture affect child sexual abuse disclosure and reporting, both in the United States and internationally. Guidelines for culturally sensitive child abuse interviewing are provided to facilitate disclosures of abuse from culturally diverse children in formal settings.
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In the citing paper
“Knowledge on CSA disclosure has been steadily advancing toward a holistic understanding of the complex interplay of individual, familial, contextual, and cultural factors”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Families with rigidly fixed gender roles, patriarchal attitudes, power imbalances, other forms of child abuse and domestic violence, chaotic family structure, dysfunctional communication, and social isolation have been found to suppress disclosure”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“and using culturally sensitive probes and questions (Fontes & Plummer, 2010).”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Anecdotal accounts may preclude transferability of findings.”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes and Plummer (2010)
In the citing paper
“In a unique study using culturally focused research literature as data triangulated with clinical case material, culturally based belief systems in many cultures have been found to foster family climates that can silence children from disclosing abuse”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Taboos about sexuality, patriarchal attitudes, and devaluation of women are among some of the cultural barriers that inhibit disclosure”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Further, barriers in relation to the social world were identified as stigmatization, the negative labeling of sexual abuse victims, and taboos surrounding sexuality and talking about sex as driven by cultural norms (Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Fontes & Plummer, 2010).”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Family relations: Families with a patriarchal structure, rigidly fixed gender roles, dysfunctional communication, other forms of abuse (i.e., domestic violence), and isolation inhibit disclosure”
From Facilitators and Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000–2016) (2019) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
In the citing paper
“Victim testimony attests to the difficulties in disclosing CSA, and CSA disclosure is dependent on numerous factors including the identity of the perpetrator, the perpetrator-victim relationship, and cultural factors (Goodman-Brown et al., 2003; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; McElvaney & Culhane, 2017).”
From Recall of sexual abuse prevention education at school and home: Associations with sexual abuse experience, disclosure, protective parenting, and knowledge (2022) · cites this paper as Fontes & Plummer, 2010
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“…members, or others of experiences of gender-based sexual violence can be inhibited by a number of factors, including feelings of shame, religious beliefs, gender power imbalances, or fear of retribution (Babalola et al., 2015; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Nguyen et al., 2021; Ullman et al., 2008).”
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“Fontes and Plummer (2010) believe these factors can influence disclosure rates and responses to abuse.”
BackgroundInfluential“The Child Needs to Tell it to Me in Words”
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“For example, male survivors of CSA may be exposed to certain sexual scripts about male sexuality including that “he should always want it and she should try to avoid it”, or that by disclosing CSA, a man will be seen as a victim (Fontes & Plummer, 2010, p. 498).”
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“…is already recognized that, in patriarchal cultures, CSA is considered to be an event that negatively affects the larger family’s honor or name and that both family members and the broader community tend to blame the victimized women (Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Macklin, 2012; Sawrikar & Katz, 2017b).”
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“Children who are victims of sexual violence are a matter of great concern and distress that crosses cultural, societal and geographical boundaries(Fontes & Plummer, 2010)(Anderson & Doherty, 2007)(Whittier, 2009).”
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“Although it is not specific to pediatricians, (Fontes & Plummer, 2010) cultural reasons for underreporting childhood sexual abuse include social stigma, prejudice and the repression or suppression of addressing conduct around sexuality.”
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“As evidenced by the forty-two percent of women and thirty-three percent of men who never disclose the abuse to anyone [8] this type of abuse carries a great deal of shame.”
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“Hispanic youth frequently experience greater status insecurity in schools and communities due to ethnic bullying, anti-immigrant and deportation threats, and complex intergenerational disruptions within families (Gallardo-Cooper et al., 2014; Fontes, 2002; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Méndez, 2006).”
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“Many cases of child sexual abuse are not reported because this problem is considered a family disgrace that no one needs to know about (12-15).”
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“Sexual violence and free sex are (Fontes & Plummer, 2010) considered inappropriate by humans in terms of state law, religious law, and their effects on health, because they can lead to several possible bad consequences such as pregnancy out of wedlock, abortion, and vulnerability to sexually…”
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Ettinger, T. (2022) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-022-00367-y · Cited by 3
“Fontes and Plummer (2010) refer to this level of awareness and reflection for being able to accommodate a child’s need in practice as cultural humility.”
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Hong, M. R., & Hobbs, S. D. (2020) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2020.1837128 · Cited by 1
“For example, because of gender stereotypes and sexual scripts, males may be expected to constantly desire sexual activity (Fontes & Plummer, 2010).”
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A Response to “The Legacy of the Witch-Hunt Narrative”
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“Fontes and Plummer (2010) explained that when we understand the values of people from different cultures, we can better understand barriers to disclosure.”
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“A parent will rather not disclose the abuse in order to protect the victim’s future interest and to prevent family shame (Baltimore, Mill, & Anarfi, 2002; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Xiao & Smith-Prince, 2015).”
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Indigenising forensic social work in South Africa
Rapholo, S. F., & Makhubele, J. C. (2018) · Knowledge pathing · doi:10.4102/aosis.2018.bk76.13 · Cited by 2
Migration and Transcultural Aspect of Sexual Abuse of Children and Adolescents
Kizilhan, J. (2017) · Journal of Trauma & Treatment · doi:10.4172/2167-1222.1000408 · Cited by 1
“Feelings of guilt and shame, such as perceptions of responsibility for the abuse, lack of honor, and loss of self-worth, influence disclosure [29].”
BackgroundYoung People Displaying Problematic Sexual Behavior: The Research and Their Words
Sheehan, V. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61625-4_18 · Cited by 1
Picking up the Pieces: Working with Adult Women Sexual Abuse Survivors
Pack, M. (2016) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0159-6.ch050 · Cited by 1
Træen, B., Kvalem, I. L., & Ohnstad, I. (2019) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-019-09630-6 · Cited by 4
Understanding Child Sexual Abuse Disclosure
Mooney, J. P. (2026) · doi:10.51952/9781447376644
Cultural Beliefs of Mothers Whose Daughters Experienced Sexual Abuse in Türkiye
Oksal, H., & Atalay, Z. (2026) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.70297
Lateef, R., Collin‐Vézina, D., Alaggia, R., & MacIntosh, H. B. (2026) · Women & Therapy · doi:10.1080/02703149.2026.2738889
Nkfusai, C. N., Maureen, N. N., Khuzwayo, N., & Chima, S. C. (2026) · The Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2026.55.67.52108
Contextual stressors for Black and Latino families after child sexual abuse
Fong, H.-F., Nakash, O., Lindsey, M. A., Rodriguez, Y. L., Caldas, A., Bair-Merritt, M. H., McKay, M., Beardslee, W., & Alegría, M. (2026) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595261478844
Behind closed doors: narratives of intra-familial child sexual abuse survivors in India
Deka, B., Rupam, M., & Gogoi, D. M. (2026) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2026.2711077
Fan, Y., Song, Z., & Lyu, C. (2026) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2026.2708940
Ofosu, A., & Levine, D. (2026) · Violence against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012261461588
Seid, A., Thai, H. M., & Olorunnisola, T. S. (2026) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00936-w
“In cultural contexts where family honour and reputation are prioritised over the wellbeing of individual victims, survivors may experience difficulties disclosing sexual abuse (Fontes & Plummer, 2010 ).”
Fatima, N. (2026) · Sociological Research And Innovation · doi:10.32350/sri.41.01
Persin, M. J., Julian, K. M., & Bennett, J. M. (2026) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-026-00682-2
Dinh, H. T., Kelly, A. B., Nguyen, H. T., Le, T. M., & Baker, P. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08264-x
“Meanwhile, norms emphasising family cohesion and “saving face” can further discourage self-report of distress or family adversities [61, 62].”
Ramírez-Rivera, E., Pérez-Laras, L., & Laras, L. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00922-2
“In addition, the forensic context adds layers of stigma, legal anxiety, and fear of judgment, as noted in qualitative research on evaluations of child sexual abuse evaluations (Fontes & Plummer, 2010; McElvaney, 2015).”
Exploring Sexual Abuse, Adverse Childhood Experiences and Alcohol Use among Asian American Adults
Chaliawala, K. S., Vidourek, R. A., & King, K. A. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00888-1
“Additionally, cultural factors influence the prevalence, dis - closure, and treatment of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) within Asian Ameri - can communities (Fassler et al., 2005 ; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Jirapramukpitak et al., 2005).”
Adolescents' Positive Experiences of Psychotherapy Following Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review.
McElvaney, R., & Starrs, B. (2026) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380261437090
Enduring Trauma: The Lived Experiences of Female Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse in Ghana
Kyei-Arthur, F., Alhassan, N., Kyei-Gyamfi, S., Miezah, D., Rasby, S., & Gyasi, R. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00884-5
“…abused often fail to report the abuse because of the fear that they will not be believed, fear of victimization, and the general discomfort and cultural norms around reporting issues of sex and sexual experiences (Attah, 2016; Boakye, 2009; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Ramaswamy & Seshadri, 2017).”
Shattered Chains: Shedding Light on Child Sexual Abuse in the Black Community
Banks-Chatman, L. (2026) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2026.2673325
“Fontes and Plummer (2010) note that cultural values, fear of community betrayal, and systemic mistrust present significant barriers to disclosure among racially marginalized children.”
InfluentialThorpe, C., Horn, N., & Piggin, L. (2026) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2026.2643270
Özden, A. T. (2026) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-026-10561-2
Khan, S., Ahmad, S., Rahman, H. U., Khan, I., & Muhammad, A. (2026) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70118
Cultural and Linguistic Considerations in Forensic Mental Health Assessment
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.001.0001
Forensic Perspectives on Child Sexual Abuse Disclosure in Greece: A Retrospective Study
Dimitriou, K., Efthymiou, V., Fragkou, K., Peyron, P., Martrille, L., Baccino, É., Bacopoulou, F., & Papadodima, S. A. (2026) · Pediatric Reports · doi:10.3390/pediatric18010012
“Cultural norms emphasizing family loyalty, modesty, and social reputation further reinforce silence, particularly in collectivist societies [11,12].”
Özpolat, M., Koçtürk, N., Bayar, Ö., & Büyükçolpan, H. (2025) · Ufuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi · doi:10.58635/ufuksbedergi.1783136
Tülü, İ. A., & Erden, G. (2025) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-025-00451-3
“Additionally, Fontes and Plummer [46] emphasize that patriarchal family structures, sexual taboos—including concepts of honor—and religious teachings also shape the perception of child sexual abuse.”
Mexican Mothers Before Child Sexual Abuse: Knowledge, Skills, and Needs for Prevention
González-Hernández, D., Treviño-Siller, S., Séris-Martínez, M., Tapia, A. J., & Rivera-Rivera, L. (2025) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2025.2562392
“…to community rejection or stigma; as well as the influence of patriarchy and machismo common in many communities, weaknesses in the legal system, and general attitudes toward sexual offenses against children – all contribute to a very limited response to CSA (Alaggia, 2002; Fontes & Plummer, 2010).”
Shalash, A., Rmeileh, N. M. A., Kelly, D., & Elmusharaf, K. (2025) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.70324
Barriers to Children Disclosing Experiences of Victimization in Cambodian Orphanages
Deck, S. L., Powell, M. B., & van Doore, K. E. (2025) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2025.2475835
“Indeed, relational and cultural factors exert significant influences on children’s disclosure process (e.g., Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Reitsema & Grietens, 2016).”
InfluentialRabe, J., & Pineda, L. (2025) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70042 · Cited by 1
Construction and Validation of a Muslim Religious Trauma Scale
Ok, Ü., Gören, A. B., & Gülmez, Ç. (2024) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2024.2412294 · Cited by 1
“Shame within the family and religious community, coupled with attributing the situation to the child’s mistakes or sins, perpetuates the abuse and hinders prevention efforts (Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Garland & Argueta, 2010).”
Klebanov, B., & Katz, C. (2024) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.13053
Boateng, F. D., Oti-Boadi, M., & Darko, I. (2024) · International Journal of Criminology and Sociology · doi:10.6000/1929-4409.2024.13.14
“Culture has been found to play a significant role in the disclosure of sexual violence (Burt, 1980; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Kalra & Bhugra, 2013).”
BackgroundPretorius, E., & Boshoff, P. J. (2024) · SOUTHERN AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT · doi:10.25159/2708-9355/14066
Datta, T., & Terradas, M. M. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100377
Mind the gap: strategies for child protection in communities and organizations
Grady, M. D., Zitzmann, B., Alba, C., & McNeil, S. (2023) · Social Thought · doi:10.1080/15426432.2023.2264219
“Through a public health approach, it is possible that cultural norms may change, and some authors believe that there need to be more efforts that specifically target cultural norms (Berkowitz, 2010; Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Mathews & Collin-Vézina, 2016; World Health Organization, 2009).”
Dlamini, N., Masango, B., Chiao, C., & Lin, W.-H. (2023) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2023.2206099
“In addition, under-reporting of sexual abuse is a common issue in an African setting due to the fear of stigma and the possibility of victimization by perpetrators and their families (Abeya 2022; Folayan et al., 2014; Fontes & Plummer, 2010).”
BackgroundWorking towards more culturally informed formulation using the power threat meaning framework
Willmot, P. (2023) · Forensic Update · doi:10.53841/bpsfu.2023.1.144.20
Metadata
- Authors
- Fontes, L. A., & Plummer, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fontes, Lisa Aronson
- Venue
- Journal of Child Sexual Abuse
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-09-30
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 491-518
- ISSN
- 1053-8712 (ISSN-L)
- 1547-0679
- OpenAlex
- W2037414489
- Cited by
- 409
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 6.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Sexual Abuse (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Military, Security, and Education Studies
- Keywords
- child sexual abuse, disclosure, cultural norms, ethnic culture, religious culture, reporting to authorities, multicultural children, child abuse investigation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attitude to Health, Child, Child Abuse, Sexual, Child Behavior, Child Health Services, Child Welfare, Communication Barriers, Cultural Characteristics, Ethnicity, Family Relations, Humans, Social Perception, United States, Global Health, Disclosure
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