Microbiome modulators for atopic eczema: A systematic review of experimental and investigational therapeutics
Abstract
Introduction Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common inflammatory cutaneous disease that arises due to dysregulation of the Th2 immune response, impaired skin barrier integrity, and dysbiosis of the skin and gut microbiota. An abundance of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms in AD lesions increases the Th2 immune response, and gut bacteria release breakdown products such as Short Chain Fatty Acids that regulate the systemic immune response.Areas Covered We aim to evaluate therapies that modulate the microbiome in humans and discuss the clinical implications of these treatments. We performed a review of the literature in which 2,673 records were screened, and describe the findings of 108 studies that were included after full-text review. All included studies discussed the effects of therapies on the human microbiome and AD severity. Oral probiotics, topical probiotics, biologics, and investigational therapies were included in our analysis.Expert Opinion Oral probiotics demonstrate mixed efficacy at relieving AD symptoms. Topical probiotics reduce S. aureus abundance in AD lesional skin, yet for moderate-severe disease, these therapies may not reduce AD severity scores to the standard of biologics. Dupilumab and tralokinumab target key inflammatory pathways in AD and modulate the skin microbiome, further improving disease severity.
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Tissue-based analyses provide direct insight into the cellular and cytokine composition of inflammatory lesions, enabling a deeper understanding of disease mechanisms and therapeutic targets.
“Tissue-based analyses provide direct insight into the cellular and cytokine composition of inflammatory lesions, enabling a deeper understanding of disease mechanisms and therapeutic targets.”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
The type 2 cytokine milieu downregulates antimicrobial peptides, facilitating microbial colonization, particularly by Staphylococcus aureus, which amplifies inflammation through superantigen production and Th2 polarization.
“Furthermore, this cytokine milieu downregulates antimicrobial peptides, facilitating microbial colonization, particularly by Staphylococcus aureus, which amplifies inflammation through superantigen production and Th2 polarization.”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
Epithelial-derived alarmins such as TSLP, IL-25, and IL-33 activate dendritic cells and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), promoting Th2 differentiation and perpetuating cytokine release.
“In parallel, epithelial-derived alarmins such as TSLP, IL-25, and IL-33 activate dendritic cells and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), promoting Th2 differentiation and perpetuating cytokine release [7,8,9].”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
Type 2 inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 signal through JAK-dependent pathways and lead to activation of STAT6.
“Type 2 inflammatory cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13, signal through JAK-dependent pathways and lead to activation of STAT6.”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
Atopic dermatitis is driven by a complex interaction between epidermal barrier defects and immune dysregulation, with the IL-4/IL-13-JAK-STAT6 axis representing a central pathogenic pathway.
“Atopic dermatitis is driven by a complex interaction between epidermal barrier defects and immune dysregulation, with the IL-4/IL-13–JAK–STAT6 axis representing a central pathogenic pathway.”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
IL-4/IL-13-JAK-STAT6 signaling results in transcriptional repression of epidermal differentiation genes such as filaggrin, loricrin, and involucrin, and enzymes involved in ceramide synthesis, thereby impairing barrier integrity.
“This results in transcriptional repression of essential epidermal differentiation genes such as filaggrin, loricrin, and involucrin, as well as enzymes involved in ceramide synthesis, thereby directly impairing barrier integrity.”
From The Cutaneous Immune Microenvironment in Selected Inflammatory Skin Diseases: Linking Histopathology, Mechanisms, and Targeted Therapy (2026) · cites this paper as [7]
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Effects of 308 nm excimer light treatment on the skin microbiome of atopic dermatitis patients
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Improvement of Atopic Dermatitis by Synbiotic Baths
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Successful management of mild atopic dermatitis in adults with probiotics and emollients
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Changes in Gut Microbiota of Patients with Atopic Dermatitis During Balneotherapy
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Effect of an Emollient on the Mycobiome of Atopic Dermatitis Patients.
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Wu, H., Zhu, J., Yang, N., Ji, X., Li, Z., Zhou, Y., Xu, Q., Ye, Y., Bai, Z., Wang, J., et al. (2025) · JDDG Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft · doi:10.1111/ddg.15688 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Probiotic effects on skin health: comprehensive visual analysis and perspectives
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Overlapping features of atopic dermatitis and alopecia areata: from pathogenesis to treatment
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“As targeted therapies continue to emerge, integrating histopathological findings with molecular pathways is essential for advancing precision dermatology [2,7].”
The dual role of skin microbiome modulation in precision care for atopic dermatitis: A review
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Flint, E. J., Ahmad, N., Rowland, K. C., Hildebolt, C. F., & Raskin, D. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.07.30.24311221 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Dupilumab in atopic dermatitis: Review of data and clinical experience
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Perianal eczema: a review of mechanisms, epidemiology, and treatment progress
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- Authors
- Greenzaid, J. D., Chan, L. J., Chandani, B. M., Kiritsis, N. R., & Feldman, S. R.
- Affiliations
- Wake Forest University Health Sciences (US)
- Corresponding author
- Greenzaid, Jonathan D.
- Venue
- Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2024-03-06
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 415-430
- ISSN
- 1354-3784 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-7658
- OpenAlex
- W4392453531
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6
- FWCI
- 1.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Dermatology and Skin Diseases
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Contact Dermatitis and Allergies
- Keywords
- atopic dermatitis, skin microbiome, gut microbiota, Staphylococcus aureus biofilm, Th2 immune response, short-chain fatty acids, oral probiotics, topical probiotics, biologics, dupilumab, tralokinumab, skin barrier integrity, disease severity
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Animals, Antibodies, Monoclonal, Biological Products, Dermatitis, Atopic, Humans, Severity of Illness Index, Skin, Staphylococcus aureus, Th2 Cells, Probiotics, Microbiota
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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