Relating developments in children's counterfactual thinking and executive functions
Open accessAbstract
The performance of 93 children aged 3 and 4 years on a battery of different counterfactual tasks was assessed. Three measures: short causal chains, location change counterfactual conditionals, and false syllogisms—but not a fourth, long causal chains—were correlated, even after controlling for age and receptive vocabulary. Children's performance on our counterfactual thinking measure was predicted by receptive vocabulary ability and inhibitory control. The role that domain general executive functions may play in 3- to 4-year olds' counterfactual thinking development is discussed.
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Beck et al. found that inhibition predicted performance on CFR but found no evidence that working memory relates to developments in counterfactual thinking ability.
“In a study with 3–4‐year‐olds, Beck et al. (2009) found that inhibition predicted performance on CFR but found no evidence that WM relates to developments in counterfactual thinking ability.”
From A plausible role of imagination in pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, and executive functions (2023) · cites this paper as Beck et al. (2009)
Beck et al. (2009) reported no significant correlations between WM and CFR.
“Beck et al. (2009) also reported no significant correlations between WM and CFR.”
From A plausible role of imagination in pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, and executive functions (2023) · cites this paper as Beck et al. (2009)
Beck et al. (2009) reported positive correlations between inhibition and CFR.
“Beck et al. (2009) reported positive correlations between inhibition and CFR.”
From A plausible role of imagination in pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, and executive functions (2023) · cites this paper as Beck et al. (2009)
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“For instance, Carlson et al. (2014) reported positive correlations between inhibition and the ability to manage dual representations in PP, and Beck et al. (2009) reported positive correlations between inhibition and CFR.”
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On the syntax-centric theories of human creativity
Brattico, P. (2013) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354313506508
Chu, C.-Y. (2015) · KU ScholarWorks (University of Kansas)
Murcia, A. (2016) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1080/02109395.2015.1122436
El sentido de un comienzo : pensamiento contrafactual, ucronía e imaginación histórica
Carbonell, A. M. (2016) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
The effects of neurological damage on counterfactual thinking, regret, and decision making
Putt, C. (2018) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
Borst, G., & Houdé, O. (2019) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy1.184.0359
Lee, Y., & Lim, J. (2020) · Family and environment research · doi:10.6115/fer.2020.010
Wan, L., Zha, R., Ren, J., Li, Y., Zhao, Q., Zuo, H., & Zhang, X. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.14.340273
A Plausible role of Imagination in Pretense, Executive Functions, and Counterfactual ReasoningPreprint
Francis, G. A., & Gibson, J. L. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/skxb8
Counterfactual Thinking: The Science of Wondering “What If?”
Veall, E., & Nyhout, A. (2022) · Frontiers for Young Minds · doi:10.3389/frym.2022.769288
Responsibility attribution about mechanical devices by children and adults
Gordo, C., Gómez-Sánchez, J., & Moreno‐Ríos, S. (2023) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2023.2259549
Experience of regret is unaffected by concurrent working memory load
FitzGibbon, L., Putt, C., Feeney, A., McCormack, T., & Beck, S. R. (2024) · Routledge Open Research · doi:10.12688/routledgeopenres.18001.1
Self-citationCounterfactual Reasoning Development in Different Languages
Wu, Y. (2025) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12549
Challenges and Risks to the Inclusion of AI for Environmental Applications
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Die Bedeutung der Bezugsperson für das Symbolspiel im Kleinkindalter
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Counterfactual thinking and Aging: the role of executive function
Walsh, C. R., Deeprose, C., Briazu, R. A., & Bacon, A. M. (2026) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2026.2689110
Grigoroglou, M., & Ganea, P. A. (2026) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000926100762
Byrne, R. M. J. (2026) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.506
- Authors
- Beck, S. R., Riggs, K. J., & Gorniak, S. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- London Metropolitan University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Beck, Sarah R.
- Venue
- Thinking & Reasoning
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-11
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 337-354
- ISSN
- 1354-6783 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0708
- OpenAlex
- W2048089934
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 11.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Thinking & Reasoning (publishedVersion)
- Repository@Hull (Worktribe) (University of Hull) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository@Hull (Worktribe) (University of Hull) (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-000-22-1683)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- counterfactual reasoning, executive function, inhibitory control, young children, causal reasoning, receptive vocabulary, domain-general cognition
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