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Cited by 13Child and Animal Learning DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyEarly Childhood Education and Development

A plausible role of imagination in pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, and executive functions

Open access
Francis, Gill Althia, Gibson, Jenny Louise·2023·British Journal of Psychology
DOI 10.1111/bjop.12650PMC PMC10952659
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Abstract

A notable observation is the similarities in the cognitive processes of pretend play (PP) and counterfactual reasoning (CFR) as both involve thinking about alternatives to reality. It is argued by Weisberg and Gopnik ( Cogn. Sci. , 37 , 2013, 1368) that alternative thinking in PP and CFR is underpinned by an imaginary representational capacity but few studies have empirically investigated this link. We use a variable latent modelling approach to test a hypothetical model of the structural relationship of PP and CFR predicting that if PP and CFR are cognitively similar; they should have similar patterns of associations with Executive Functions (EFs). Data were collected on PP, CFR, EFs and Language from 189 children ( M = 4.8 years, males = 101, females = 88). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that measures of PP and CFR loaded onto single latent constructs and were significantly correlated ( r = .51, p = .001) with each other. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that EF accounted for unique significant variance in both PP ( β = 21) and CFR ( β = 22). The results of the structural equation modelling revealed that the data were a good fit for the hypothetical model. We discuss the plausible role of a general underlying imaginative representational capacity to explain similarities in the cognitive mechanisms of different states of alternative thinking like PP and CFR.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study tested whether pretend play (PP) and counterfactual reasoning (CFR) share an underlying imaginative representational capacity, using latent variable modelling in 4–5-year-olds. It found that PP and CFR formed correlated latent constructs, were similarly predicted by complex executive function, and fit a second-order model in which a common factor was predicted by inhibition.

Key findings

  • Confirmatory factor analyses showed PP and CFR measures loaded onto single latent constructs; the latent PP and CFR constructs were significantly correlated, r = .51, p = .001, even after controlling for age.
  • Hierarchical multiple regressions showed complex EF accounted for unique variance in both PP (β = .21) and CFR (β = .22) over age and receptive language, while working memory did not.
  • Children performed better on CFR conditions with one location change (CFR-T1 = 77%, CFR-At1 = 76%) than on mature CFR conditions with two location changes (CFR-T2 = 60%, CFR-At2 = 49%).
  • The second-order SEM was reported as a satisfactory fit: χ²(18) = 32.05, p = .02, χ²/df = 1.78, TLI = .92, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .07; a common underlying factor accounted for shared PP–CFR variance and was predicted by inhibition.

Methods

  • Observational study of 189 children aged 4–5 years (M = 4.8 years; 101 boys, 88 girls), recruited from seven primary schools in Cambridgeshire, UK; three autistic children were excluded, and 32% of parents reported multilingual homes.
  • Measures included the Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment for PP, the Location Change Task for CFR, the Head Toes Knees and Shoulders Task as a complex EF measure, Spin the Pots for working memory, and CELF subtests for receptive language.
  • Analyses used confirmatory factor analysis, correlations, hierarchical multiple regressions, and a second-order hierarchical structural equation model; missing data were below 10% and handled with pairwise deletion and full-information maximum likelihood.

Limitations

  • The paper states that data were collected at one time point, so causality cannot be inferred; testing-time limits constrained the number of indicators; only two EF measures were included, so a latent EF factor could not be extracted; no component inhibition measure was used; and findings generalize to similar-age children in relatively affluent communities.
  • Evident from the text: the SEM fit reports a CFI of .5 alongside other indices described as satisfactory, which is inconsistent with the paper’s fit interpretation and suggests a possible reporting error.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/bjop.12650

Cites

64 of 64 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

14 of 41 cited sources checked · 11 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    EFs are not well differentiated during early childhood.

    “It may be that EFs are not well differentiated during early childhood (Reilly et al., 2022)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reilly et al., 2022 source
  • Findingown data

    EF accounted for unique significant variance in PP (β = 21).

    “Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that EF accounted for unique significant variance in both PP (β = 21) and CFR (β = 22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The latent constructs of PP and CFR were significantly correlated (r = .51, p = .001).

    “Confirmatory factor analyses showed that measures of PP and CFR loaded onto single latent constructs and were significantly correlated (r = .51, p = .001) with each other.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    EF accounted for unique significant variance in CFR (β = 22).

    “Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that EF accounted for unique significant variance in both PP (β = 21) and CFR (β = 22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The data were a good fit for the hypothetical model in the structural equation modelling analysis.

    “The results of the structural equation modelling revealed that the data were a good fit for the hypothetical model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 39
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    During CFR, mental representations that are explicitly contrary to facts or beliefs are imagined.

    “During CFR, mental representations that are explicitly contrary to facts or beliefs are imagined (Roese & Morrison, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Roese & Morrison, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Buchsbaum et al. reported that PP and CFR were significantly associated but neither PP nor CFR correlated with inhibition.

    “The associations between PP, CFR, and inhibition were explored in an experiment by Buchsbaum et al. (2012) and the authors reported that PP and CFR were significantly associated but neither PP nor CFR correlated with inhibition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buchsbaum et al. (2012) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Carlson and White found a robust positive correlation linking EF to the ability to manage dual representations in pretence.

    “They found a robust, positive correlation which they argued linked EF to the ability to manage dual representations in pretence (Carlson & White, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carlson & White, 2013 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The inconsistency in results could arise from task impurities where non-executive processes influence performance on EF tasks in addition to the specific EF of interest.

    “The inconsistency in results could arise from task impurities where in addition to the specific EF of interest targeted, non‐executive processes could influence performance on EF tasks (Friedman & Miyake, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Friedman & Miyake, 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Buchsbaum et al. found that children were more successful at answering CFR questions in PP conditions and that children's PP and CFR responses were significantly correlated even after controlling for age effects.

    “The researchers found that children were more successful at answering CFR questions in PP conditions and children's PP and CFR responses were significantly correlated even after controlling for age effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buchsbaum et al. (2012) source

      The Results (sections 7 and 10; page unavailable) report that children's counterfactual and pretence scores were significantly correlated after controlling for age. Section 7 also reports that counterfactual answers were better than chance, but it does not establish that children answered those questions more successfully in pretend-play conditions; the paper reports separate counterfactual and pretence phases. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A sample of 11% of video data was double coded by the researcher and an experienced coder, and inter-rater reliability resulted in good to excellent reliability across CHIPPA subscales.

    “A sample of 11% of video data was double coded by the researcher and an experienced coder (the developer of CHIPPA). Inter‐rater reliability was based on intra‐class correlation (ICC) statistics from the mean rating for the two coders (k = 2) using a two‐way mixed effects consistency model (see Table 2 below) and resulted in good to excellent reliability across the CHIPPA subscales (Koo & Li, 2016”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Koo & Li, 2016 source
    • cites Shrout & Fleiss, 1979 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The correlation results for PP and CFR from Buchsbaum et al. were used post hoc to calculate statistical power, resulting in a power value of .95.

    “The correlation results for PP and CFR (r50 = .62, p < .001) from Buchsbaum et al. (2012) was used posthoc to calculate the statistical power needed to detect an effect using the G*Power calculator resulting in a power value of .95 (Faul et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Buchsbaum et al. (2012) source
    • cites Faul et al., 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Buchsbaum et al. (2012) reported significant positive correlations between PP and CFR: r = .59 after controlling for age in one experiment, and r = .38 after controlling for age, EF and conservation in a second experiment.

    “Similar positive correlations between PP and CFR are reported by Buchsbaum et al. (2012) who reported significant correlations (r = .59) after controlling for age in one experiment and after controlling for age, EF and conservation in a second experiment (r = .38).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buchsbaum et al. (2012) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    HTKS has good construct validity in relation to other executive function measures.

    “HTKS is reported to have good construct validity in relation to other executive function measures (McClelland et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McClelland et al., 2014 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One location change targets basic conditional reasoning and two location changes target mature CFR; answers to basic conditional reasoning and mature reasoning are the same for typical locations but not atypical locations.

    “The distinction between locations is important as one location change targets basic conditional reasoning and two location changes target mature CFR. Answers to basic conditional reasoning and mature reasoning are the same for typical locations but not atypical locations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rafetseder & Perner, 2010 source

      The Results (Age differences; page unavailable) distinguish basic conditional reasoning from counterfactual reasoning: children classified as using basic conditional reasoning answered correctly in three conditions and made typical-location errors only in the two-alternative, atypical condition. Thus the strategies differ for that specific atypical condition, not for atypical locations generally; they produce the same answer in the one-alternative, atypical condition. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Carlson et al. (2014) reported that WM did not significantly predict child engagement in PP after controlling for factors like age and language.

    “For example, Carlson et al. (2014) reported that WM did not significantly predict child engagement in PP after controlling for factors like age and language.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carlson et al. (2014) source

      The Method (§2.3) identifies Forward Digit Span as a short-term memory control, and the Results (§3.3.2) describe regressions controlling for age and receptive vocabulary. Neither passage reports whether working memory significantly predicted children's engagement in pretend play; the reported outcomes are pretense-representation tasks, not play engagement. Searches for working-memory prediction and the regression results did not establish the claimed finding. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Carlson et al. (2014) reported positive correlations between inhibition and the ability to manage dual representations in PP.

    “Carlson et al. (2014) reported positive correlations between inhibition and the ability to manage dual representations in PP”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carlson et al. (2014) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the HMR with PP as dependent variable, each block of the model was significant and accounted for 7%, 13% and 16% of the variance in PP, respectively.

    “For the HMR with PP as a dependent variable, each block of the model was significant and accounted for 7%, 13% and 16% of the variance in PP, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The individual domains had acceptable internal consistency: α = .63 for PP and α = .77 for CFR.

    “The individual domains had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach alpha): α = .63 for the PP domain and α = .77 for the CFR domain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the hierarchical multiple regression with CFR as the dependent variable, each block of the model was significant and accounted for 5%, 23%, and 26% of the variance in CFR, respectively.

    “For the HMR with CFR as a dependent variable, each block of the model was significant and accounted for 5%, 23% and 26% of the variance in CFR, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Working memory did not significantly predict CFR (β = −.01).

    “Working memory | −.03 | | | −.01 | | |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Complex EFs accounted for significant unique variance in PP (β = .21) and CFR (β = .22) over and above age and receptive language, but WM did not.

    “Complex EFs similarly accounted for significant unique variance in PP (β = 21) and CFR (β = 22) over and above age and receptive language but WM did not.”
    • Also stated in: § CONCLUSION · plain
      “evidence that EFs account for similar variance in PP and CFR”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The second-order hierarchical model revealed that a common underlying factor accounted for the shared associations between PP and CFR, and this factor was predicted by inhibition.

    “The second‐order hierarchical model revealed that a common underlying factor, accounted for the shared associations between PP and CFR and this factor was predicted by inhibition (see Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Beck et al. found that inhibition predicted performance on CFR but found no evidence that working memory relates to developments in counterfactual thinking ability.

    “In a study with 3–4‐year‐olds, Beck et al. (2009) found that inhibition predicted performance on CFR but found no evidence that WM relates to developments in counterfactual thinking ability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck et al. (2009) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    At this point, it is unclear whether difficulties with CFR are due to increasing demands on EF or simply because CFR is inherently challenging.

    “At this point, it is unclear if difficulties with CFR are due to increasing demands on EF or simply because CFR is inherently challenging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Advanced statistical data analysis techniques like structural equation modelling can be used to identify whether an underlying latent construct could account for associations shared by PP and CFR.

    “Advanced statistical data analysis techniques like structural equation modelling can be used to identify whether an underlying latent construct could account for associations shared by PP and CFR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hoyle, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The underlying mechanisms of CFR maintain and update two representations: the imagined alternative and the known or presupposed reality.

    “Therefore, the underlying mechanisms of CFR maintain and update two representations, the imagined alternative and the known or presupposed reality (Byrne, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Byrne, 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    No study has directly tested whether a common underlying imaginary representational capacity is at work.

    “However, no study has directly tested whether a common underlying imaginary representational capacity is at work.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    This study is the first to use a latent variable modelling approach in developmental CFR research.

    “This study is pioneering as it is the first to use a latent variable modelling approach in developmental CFR research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both PP and CFR are in some way dependent on an imaginary representational capacity.

    “While Nyhout & Ganea emphasized conceptual distinctions between what counts as PP and CFR; their arguments do not nullify that both abilities are in some way dependent on an imaginary representational capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In PP, a primary real-world representation is raised to a second-order representation or metarepresentation of the pretend world.

    “In PP, this primary representation (real‐world mental model) is raised to a second‐order representation or metarepresentation (mental model of the pretend world).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leslie, 1987 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Weisberg and Gopnik posited that because an imaginary representation of the world contrary to reality is evoked in both PP and CFR, the two likely engage the same component cognitive abilities.

    “Weisberg and Gopnik (2013) posited that since an imaginary representation of the world that is contrary to reality is evoked in both contexts, PP and CFR likely engage the same component cognitive abilities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weisberg and Gopnik (2013) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Both PP and CFR theorists make clear that alternative representations are imaginary representations derived from real-world premises.

    “Both PP and CFR theorists make clear that alternative representations are imaginary representations derived from real‐world premises.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leslie (1987) source
    • cites Byrne (2016)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The age of 4-5 years was chosen because it marks when children begin to demonstrate mature CFR and is the high season of child PP.

    “This age was chosen because it marks when children begin to demonstrate mature CFR (Rafetseder & Perner, 2010, 2014), as well as it being the ‘high season’ of child PP (Kavanaugh, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rafetseder & Perner, 2010, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kavanaugh, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Beck et al. (2009) reported no significant correlations between WM and CFR.

    “Beck et al. (2009) also reported no significant correlations between WM and CFR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck et al. (2009) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    CFR responses were included in the analyses only if both control questions were answered accurately.

    “CFR responses are included in the analyses only if both control questions were answered accurately.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Guajardo and Cartwright (2016) found that WM significantly predicted performance in CFR.

    “Guajardo and Cartwright (2016) found that WM significantly predicted performance in CFR”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guajardo and Cartwright (2016)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Drayton et al. (2011) reported that WM, inhibition and CFR were all significantly correlated.

    “Drayton et al. (2011) reported WM, inhibition and CFR were all significantly correlated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Drayton et al. (2011)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The SEM calculator recommended a minimum sample size of n = 156 for a large effect in this study.

    “The result from the SEM calculator recommended a minimum sample size of n = 156 for a large effect in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The Location Change Task translation from German to English was validated by an independent translator to ensure content validity was maintained.

    “The task was first translated from German to English and the translation was validated by an independent translator to ensure that the content validity was maintained after translation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The data met assumptions for parametric tests and outliers were retained to maintain full variability.

    “The data met assumptions for parametric tests and outliers were retained to maintain the full variability of scores from the different tasks as they were not problematic (Song et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Song et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    If PP and CFR share cognitive processes, they should have similar patterns of associations with other cognitive skills.

    “The rationale for this hypothesis is that if PP and CFR share cognitive processes then they should have similar patterns of associations with other cognitive skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Imitated action scores were excluded from further analysis as they do not represent spontaneous child-initiated play.

    “Imitated action scores are excluded from further analysis as they do not represent spontaneous child‐initiated play.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    As the proportion of missing data overall was less than 10%, pairwise deletion and full-information maximum likelihood were used.

    “As the proportion of missing data overall was less than 10%, we used pairwise deletion and full‐information maximum likelihood”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Missing data below 10% do not pose a threat to statistical power.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    NOS-CV scores had a floor effect and were excluded from further analyses given the limited range of scores.

    “NOS‐CV scores had a floor effect and were excluded from further analyses given the limited range of scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study conducted an a priori check of statistical power using an online sample size calculator for structural equation models to determine the minimum sample needed to detect significant effects.

    “We conducted an a priori check of statistical power using an online sample size calculator for structural equation models to determine the minimum sample needed to detect significant effects in this study (Soper, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Soper, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All study measures were piloted to check that tasks were appropriate to the target age group and sample and to ensure tasks would be engaging and motivating to children.

    “All study measures were piloted to check that tasks were appropriate to the target age group and sample as well as to ensure the tasks would be engaging and motivating to children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both PP and CFR are multi-dimensional constructs comprising various cognitive indicators that signal early development.

    “This is interesting because both PP and CFR are multi‐dimensional constructs comprising various cognitive indicators that signal early development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stagnitti, 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CHIPPA has good concurrent validity, test-retest reliability and inter-rater reliability.

    “CHIPPA reportedly has good concurrent validity, test–retest reliability and inter‐rater reliability (McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009; Stagnitti et al., 2000; Uren & Stagnitti, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009 source
    • cites Stagnitti et al., 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Uren & Stagnitti, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    PP and CFR both involve alternative imaginative thinking about reality; they likely share underlying cognitive processes - a common imaginary capacity which recruits EFs.

    “Essentially, given that PP and CFR both involve alternative imaginative thinking about reality; they likely share underlying cognitive processes – a common imaginary capacity which recruits EFs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Limits on testing time impacted the number of indicators that can be included in the measurement model.

    “Limits on testing time also impacted the number of indicators that can be included in the measurement model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The study is generalizable to the extent that it applies to similar-age children living in relatively affluent communities.

    “The study is generalizable to the extent that it applies to similar‐age children living in relatively affluent communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A component inhibition measure was not used in this study.

    “However, a component inhibition measure was not used in this study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The broad cognitive capacity for imaginative thinking comprises different forms of thinking about alternatives to reality; they are related early years developmental thinking skills.

    “Put together, the study shows that although the broad cognitive capacity for imaginative thinking comprises different forms of thinking about alternatives to reality; they are related early years developmental thinking skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Data for this study were collected at one time point; hence, causality cannot be inferred in this study.

    “Data for this study were collected at one time point; hence, we are not able to infer causality in this study (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goodwin & Goodwin, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Beck et al. (2009) reported positive correlations between inhibition and CFR.

    “Beck et al. (2009) reported positive correlations between inhibition and CFR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck et al. (2009) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For Amsel and Smalley's model to be upheld, it would need to account for differences in imaginary ideas derived from pretending or CFR, discrepancies in the demands that PP and CFR may place on the imagination, and incremental changes in child PP or CFR across the lifespan.

    “However, we argue that for this model to be upheld, it would need to account for (a) differences in imaginary ideas that are derived from pretending or CFR; (b) the discrepancies in the demands that PP and CFR may place on the imagination, that is pretending is typically open‐ended, whilst CFR is more constrained and (c) the incremental changes in child PP or CFR across the lifespan, for example”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Amsel and Smalley's model describes a process where (a) the representational format of the true world and its counterfactual representation operate by copying and editing events to result in an alternative imaginary representation, and (b) the processing requirements of the edited imagined representation involve comparing and contrasting to the real-world representation to reason from the false前提.

    “They describe a process where (a) the representational format of the true world and its counterfactual representation, in any given context, operate through a process whereby a sequence of events from the real world are copied and then edited by altering a specific event, to result in the final change being the alternative (imaginary) representation; and (b) the processing requirements of the edi”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Amsel & Smalley, 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Amsel and Smalley (2000) proposed a model of CFR about possibilities depicting how interactions between true and false states of affairs are likely reliant on the ability to imagine possible worlds.

    “A similar paradigm is described by Amsel and Smalley (2000) who proposed a model of CFR about possibilities to depict how interactions between true and false states of affairs are likely reliant on the ability to imagine possible worlds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Amsel and Smalley (2000)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    PP is a self-initiated overt activity before it atrophies by middle childhood, while CFR is burgeoning before it matures by middle childhood.

    “This age group is selected because it is a period where PP is a self‐initiated overt activity before it atrophies by middle childhood, while CFR is burgeoning before it matures by middle childhood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EF is a developing ability in this age group similar to PP and CFR.

    “We chose a complex EF measure because we argue that EF is a developing ability in this age group similar to PP and CFR.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    CELF is standardized on a UK sample and reports having good reliability and validity.

    “CELF is standardized on a UK sample and reports having good reliability and validity.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Missing data below 10% do not pose a threat to statistical power.

    “it is generally assumed that missing data below this threshold do not pose a threat to statistical power”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Children's PP and CFR skills are marked by key dimensions that progress through developmental milestones.

    “Based on the argument that children's PP and CFR skills are marked by key dimensions that progress through developmental milestones”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Previous research has reported PP and CFR to be significantly correlated.

    “Previous research has reported PP and CFR to be significantly correlated, which suggests that the two are related to cognitive skills.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Separate studies of PP and CFR have reported that EFs uniquely predict PP and CFR.

    “Separate studies of PP and CFR have reported that EFs uniquely predict PP and CFR.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No other study has investigated the association between PP and CFR at a structural level.

    “To the best of our knowledge, no other study has investigated the association between PP and CFR at a structural level.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first study to find evidence of a general construct of CFR.

    “Moreover, this is the first study to find evidence of a general construct of CFR.”
9 of 9

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 7.53reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 7.53, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 25.03reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 25.03, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 9.73reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 9.73, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 23.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 23.84, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 8.56reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 8.56, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(19, 19) = 7.73reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (19, 19) = 7.73, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(13) = 27.49reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .011

    “χ 2(13) = 27.49, p = .01”

  • ConsistentF(2, 175) = 6.66reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(2, 175) = 6.66, p = .002”

  • ConsistentF(3, 174) = 8.99reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 174) = 8.99, p = .001”

    The paper prints p at a floor (such as p < .001)

  • ConsistentF(5, 172) = 6.73reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5, 172) = 6.73, p = .001”

    The paper prints p at a floor (such as p < .001)

  • ConsistentF(2, 175) = 5.06reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .007

    “F(2, 175) = 5.06, p = .01”

  • ConsistentF(3, 174) = 17.45reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 174) = 17.45, p = .001”

    The paper prints p at a floor (such as p < .001)

  • Consistentχ²(18) = 32.05reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .022

    “χ 2(18) = 32.05, p = .02”

13 of 13

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • SEM fit conclusion conflicts with its reported CFI

    Major

    The paper defines a satisfactory CFI as greater than .90, but reports a CFI of .5 while concluding that the model has a satisfactory fit.

  • PP regression change is assigned conflicting significance levels

    Major

    Table 5 marks the Step 3 change in PP R2 as p < .001, whereas the accompanying results give p = .05.

  • Significant correlation described as non-significant

    Minor

    The stated HTKS correlation has p = .006, contradicting its description as non-significant.

  • PP language coefficient differs between table and text

    Minor

    For Step 2 of the PP regression, Table 5 reports β = .28, while the accompanying text reports β = .26.

  • Summary EF coefficients omit the decimals shown in Table 5

    Minor

    The abstract reports EF coefficients of 21 and 22, rather than the .21 and .22 reported for Complex EF in Table 5.

  • Excluded play measure appears in the factor model

    Minor

    NOS‐CV is said to be excluded from further analyses, but the reported measurement model lists it as a PP dimension.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. British Educational Research Association [BERA], 2018, Ethical guidelines for educational research
  2. Goodwin C. J., 2014, Research in psychology methods and deign
  3. Harris P. L., 1997, On realising what might have happened instead, Polish Quarterly of Developmental Psychology, 3, 161
  4. Harris P. L., 2000, The work of the imagination
  5. Piaget J., 1962, Play, dreams and imitation
  6. Robinson E. J., 2000, Children's reasoning and the mind
  7. Stagnitti K., 2007, The child‐initiated pretend play assessment (ChIPPA)
  8. StataCorp, 2019, Stata Statistical Software: Release 16
  9. Weisberg D. S., 2013, The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination
  10. Wigg E. H., 2006, CELF preschool 2UK – Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals preschool

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Francis, G. A., & Gibson, J. L.
Affiliations
  • University of York (GB)
  • University of Cambridge (GB)
Corresponding author
Francis, Gill Althia
ORCID
Venue
British Journal of Psychology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2023-04-03
Volume
114
Issue
3
Pages
749-770
ISSN
  • 0007-1269 (ISSN-L)
  • 2044-8295
DOI
10.1111/bjop.12650
PMC
PMC10952659
OpenAlex
W4362505648
Semantic Scholar
95fae88ba3296ad8312bbdddae4ee9099f2edcda
Cited by
13
References
63
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 1
FWCI
5.68
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • British Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Apollo
Funders
Economic and Social Research Council (R23162)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords
pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, executive function, imagination, alternative thinking, child cognitive development, language skills, latent constructs
MeSH terms
Child, Child Development, Female, Humans, Imagination, Language, Male, Problem Solving, Executive Function

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-17.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-17.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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