The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Extent of smoking and nicotine dependence in the United States: 19911993
Abstract
Rates of nicotine dependence vary in different sociodemographic groups in the population. These group differences remain to be understood. The objective of this study is to specify the relationship between cigarette consumption and nicotine dependence and whether group differences are explained by quantity smoked or differential sensitivity to nicotine. The data used derived from National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (1991-1993), multistage area probability samples of the US population 12 years old and over, and anonymous structured household interviews, considering subjects who were last-month smokers (12,550 White, 4903 Black, 4839 Hispanic). The main outcome measure was last-year nicotine dependence based on symptoms of dependence and drug-related problems approximating DSM-IV dependence criteria. Rates are higher among females than males, Whites than minorities and the lowest among older adults. Dependence rates increase sharply up to half a pack of cigarettes smoked per day. At higher quantities, the increased risk for dependence is minimal. The higher rate of dependence among females than males results from a greater number of symptoms at the same quantity smoked. The similarity of adolescent and middle-adult rates results from the fact that adolescents smoke significantly fewer cigarettes than adults, but experience higher rates of dependence at the same levels of use. Although adults 50 and over are the heaviest smokers, they experience the lowest rates of dependence because of hypothesized lower sensitivity to increased quantity of nicotine intake. The higher rates among Whites than Blacks appear to result from heavier smoking and greater sensitivity to nicotine effects. It was concluded that adolescents, women and Whites are particularly vulnerable to becoming dependent on nicotine. Group-specific thresholds may be more appropriate criteria than an absolute threshold to define the risk for nicotine dependence.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“adolescents experience symptoms of dependence at lower levels of nicotine exposure than adults.”
From Developmental toxicity of nicotine: A transdisciplinary synthesis and implications for emerging tobacco products (2017) · cites this paper as [241]
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–260 of 260
Smoking in adolescence: what a clinician can do to help
Sunday, S. R., & Folan, P. A. (2004) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2004.06.006 · Cited by 3
Pharmacologically, are smokers the same as non-smokers?
Bani, M., Andorn, A. C., & Heidbreder, C. A. (2013) · Current Opinion in Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.coph.2013.11.003 · Cited by 5
Drug analyses in human plasma by chromatography
Ali, I., Suhail, M., ALOthman, Z. A., Abdulrahman, A., & Aboul-Enein, H. Y. (2019) · Handbook of analytical separations · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64066-6.00002-2 · Cited by 5
The Discriminant Validity of Alcohol Use Disorder in Well-Functioning Men with Hazardous Alcohol Use
de Bruijn, H., Korzec, A., Arndt, T., et al. (2003) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000072224 · Cited by 4
Smoking Cessation and Adolescent Treatment Response With Comorbid ADHD
Pagano, M. E., Reyes, C. M. D., Wasilow, S., Svala, K. M., & Kurtz, S. P. (2016) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2016.07.008 · Cited by 3
“Minors are also disproportionately vulnerable to tobacco use disorders; tobacco use frequently starts in adolescence, and 80 percent of teen initiators continue to smoke into adulthood, curtailing lung growth, brain development, and longevity (CDC, 2010b; DiFranza et al., 2002; Kandel & Chen, 2000).”
Prasad, R., Wen, M., Ahmmad, Z., & Adkins, D. E. (2023) · Health Behavior Research · doi:10.4148/2572-1836.1172 · Cited by 1
Dugas, E. N., Sylvestre, M., Wellman, R. J., Winickoff, J. P., Montreuil, A., & O’Loughlin, J. L. (2019) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.06.036 · Cited by 3
A Biological/Genetic Perspective: The Addicted Brain
Kelly, T. H., Kazura, A. N., Lommel, K. M., Babalonis, S. L., & Martin, C. A. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09732-9_2 · Cited by 3
Influencing Factors on Nicotine Dependency of Smoking in Middle School Students
Chae, J.-H., & Choi, Y.-H. (2015) · Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society · doi:10.5762/kais.2015.16.3.2109 · Cited by 3
“이는 부모와 친구의 흡연이 니코틴 의존도에 직접적 으로 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타난 기존의 연구[13,25]를 지지한다.”
Developmental Factors in Addiction: Methodological Considerations
Chassin, L., Presson, C. C., Il‐Cho, Y., Matthew Lee, & Macy, J. T. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118384404.ch1 · Cited by 3
Fainardi, V., Barbetta, E., Petz, M., Rizzo, L., Ruberti, F., & Esposito, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.3389/fradm.2026.1723536 · Cited by 2
“Alarmingly, adolescents may develop dependence even at low levels of use, with withdrawal symptoms occurring after minimal exposure (39, 40).”
Tobacco Addiction and Psychological Co-morbidities
Ziedonis, D. M., Kalman, D., Kolodziej, M. E., Johnson, C. W., & Kim, S. Y. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0029-6_5 · Cited by 2
Evidence-Based Practice in Criminal Justice Settings
Heffron, W. M., Babalonis, S. L., Staton, M., Molenaar, L., Lommel, K. M., Kazura, A. N., House, K., & Martin, C. A. (2011) · Issues in children's and families' lives · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9470-7_3 · Cited by 2
Kim, S., & Hwang, H. (2021) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bmsp.12240 · Cited by 2
Smoking Habit: Counselling Intervention For Secondary School’s Students
Aziz, A. R. A., Shafie, A. A. H., & Amerudin, A. R. (2022) · العبقري مجلة الثقافة الإسلامية و الإنسانية · doi:10.33102/abqari.vol26no1.497 · Cited by 2
Drug use sequencing and Kandel's Gateway Hypothesis
Reid, J. M. (2008) · TigerPrints (Clemson University) · Cited by 1
Off limits. The effectiveness of age limits in reducing underage sales
Gosselt, J. F. (2011) · doi:10.3990/1.9789036532617 · Cited by 2
Hallit, J., Salameh, P., Haddad, C., Sacre, H., Soufia, M., Akel, M., Obeïd, S., Hallit, R. R., & Hallit, S. R. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.2.22160/v2 · Cited by 2
Siegel, S. (2024) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/15202.001.0001 · Cited by 1
Adolescent nicotine exposure affects later-life nicotine reward and withdrawal in mice
Buzzi, B., Buttar, B., Groener, Y., & Damaj, M. I. (2025) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2025.174061 · Cited by 1
Mechanisms underlying the enduring addiction vulnerability conferred by nicotine in adolescence
Reynolds, L. M. (2026) · Addiction Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.addicn.2026.100272 · Cited by 1
The effects of nicotine on the cognitive processes of adolescents and adults
Golden, L. L. (2009) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) · Cited by 1
Cummins, E. D., Leedy, K. K., Dose, J. M., Peterson, D. J., Kirby, S., Hernandez, L. J., & Brown, R. W. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116681458 · Cited by 1
“In addition, dependence appears to develop to tobacco after minimal tobacco exposure in adolescents as compared to adults (Kandel and Chen, 2000).”
BackgroundAdolescent E-cigarette Users at Highest Risk of Cigarette Smoking Intention
Owotomo, O., & Maslowsky, J. (2021) · American Journal of Health Behavior · doi:10.5993/ajhb.45.4.10 · Cited by 2
Estimating the quantity of smokeless tobacco consumption among older adults in India
Singh, L., Sinha, P., Singh, A., Singh, P. K., & Singh, S. (2022) · Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2022.101150 · Cited by 1
Souza-Marques, R., Borges-Martins, V. P. P., & Kubrusly, R. C. C. (2023) · Arquivos de Ciências da Saúde da UNIPAR · doi:10.25110/arqsaude.v27i1.2023.8825 · Cited by 1
Knowledge of smoking and influencing factors among school-going adolescents in Timor-Leste
Cheah, Y. K. (2024) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2023-0175 · Cited by 1
Experience of a Smoking Cessation Program Among High School Students in Taiwan
Chang, C.-P., Lee, T., & Mills, M. E. (2014) · Journal of Addictions Nursing · doi:10.1097/jan.0000000000000019 · Cited by 1
“Tobacco is the most addictive recreational substance (Johnson, Rhee, Chase, & Breslau, 2004; Kandel & Chen, 2000) and is widely viewed as a major preventable cause of morbidity and mortality in young people (Thun, DeLancey, Center, Jemal, & Ward, 2010).”
BackgroundThe Developmental Neuroepigenetics of Substance Abuse
Mason, B., Donaldson, S. T., & Hunter, R. G. (2018) · Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research · doi:10.4303/jdar/236039 · Cited by 1
“Impulsivity and novelty seeking are personality traits that increase the likelihood of initiating drug use and can contribute to greater instances of adolescents becoming addicted to substances such as nicotine [248,249] and other psychostimulants [250,251,252].”
BackgroundAn Analysis of the Interaction of Methylphenidate and Nicotine in Adolescent Rats: Effects on BDNF
Freeman, E. D. (2015) · Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) · Cited by 1
Niemelä, S. (2008) · UTUPub (University of Turku) · Cited by 1
PARENTAL INFLUENCE ON HISPANIC ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE USE
Munk, A. C. (2008) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) · Cited by 1
Minary, L. (2011) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/9e07f63ez33ccz4e4czaf79z2c17d5ef0851 · Cited by 1
“Tout comme pour l’initiation au tabagisme, l’appartenance ethnique est également facteur de dépendance puisque les fumeurs d’origine européenne ressentiraient les premiers symptômes de dépendance plus précocement que les fumeurs d’origine africaine sub-saharienne [72] et seraient plus dépendants [48,71].”
Background4. 女性の禁煙(禁煙外来の実際, 第4回禁煙推進セミナー)
高橋, 裕. (2005) · Journal of JCS Cardiologists · doi:10.1253/jjcsc.13.2_354
Gray, K. M., Carpenter, M. J., & Upadhyaya, H. P. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118340851.ch23 · Cited by 1
Badanich, K. A. (2008) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)
Age-Related Differences in Cocaine Place Conditioning and Cocaine-Induced Dopamine
Badanich, K. A. (2005) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)
A pilot study of a brief smoking cessation intervention at the student health center.
Cooper, T. V., Venegas, J., de Ybarra, D. R., et al. (2009)
Maluf, M. C. V. R. (2011) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/d.42.2011.tde-10022012-103304
Maldonado‐Devincci, A. M. (2007) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)
Dawning Dependence: Processes underlying smoking cessation in adolescence
Kleinjan, M. (2009) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam)
Bronars, C. A. (2011) · KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas)
Cigratte Smoking Induced Oxidative Stress in Human
Julius, A., Durga, B., Srinivasan, P. B., et al. (2014) · Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia · doi:10.13005/bbra/1277
SMOKING CESSATION FOR LIGHT SMOKERS.
Taylor, T., & Cooper, T. V. (2009)
Goodwin, R. D., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2009)
НЕКА СОЦИО-ДЕМОГРАФСКА ОБИЉЕЖЈА ПУШАЧА И НЕПУШАЧА
Иванишевић, Д. (2016) · Radovi · doi:10.7251/rad1622009i
Jorayeva, A. (2016) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/2583
“Nicotine dependence was chosen to be an operational definition (over the exposure to smoking) based on the 43 evidence that suggests considerable variability in dependence across individuals with comparable exposure to smoking (Colby et al., 2000; Kandel & Chen, 2000).”
Maluf, M. C. V. R. (2017) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.42.2017.tde-13072017-124411
Husten, C. G., Apelberg, B. J., & Malarcher, A. M. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-384978-6.00046-7
Cigarette Smoking and Nicotine Dependence Trajectories Among Incident Adolescent Smokers
Mésidor, M., Sylvestre, M., Minoyan, N., & O’Loughlin, J. L. (2020) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntaa018
A Biological/Genetic Perspective: The Addicted Brain
Kelly, T. H., Harvanko, A. M., Pierce, M. E., Rayapati, A. O., & Martin, C. A. (2018) · Issues in children's and families' lives · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90611-9_3
Epidemiology of Substance use Disorders
Kandel, D. B., Hu, M., Griesler, P. C., Kerridge, B. T., & Grant, B. F. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780190681425.003.0041
Hallit, J., Salameh, P., Haddad, C., Sacre, H., Soufia, M., Akel, M., Obeïd, S., Hallit, R. R., & Hallit, S. R. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.2.22160/v1
Her, W., Jung, H., & Oh, Y. S. (2023) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2023.2184736
“…higher among whites than minorities and higher among females than males in adolescents (Andreski and Breslau 1993; Breslau, Kilbey, and Andreski 1994; DiFranza et al. 2002; Kandel 2003; Kandel and Chen 2000; Kandel et al. 1997; O’loughlin et al. 2002) and young adults (Hu, Davies, and Kandel 2006).”
BackgroundРуденко, Н. А., Сарычева, В. С., Глухов, Е. А., et al. (2023) · ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ НАУКИ И ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ · doi:10.18411/trnio-01-2023-350
Kota, D. (2008) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/ps6p-8s62
“The commencement of smoking at a young age is thought to increase addiction liability, decrease the probability of successful cessation (Colby et al. 2000; Kandel and Chen 2000), and correlate with a higher number of cigarettes smoked per day (Taoli and Wynder 1991).”
BackgroundTHE IMPACT OF ADOLESCENT NICOTINE EXPOSURE ON DRUG DEPENDENCE IN ADULTHOOD
Alajaji, M. (2010) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/2bty-f448
“Initiating smoking during adolescence correlates with greater addiction liability, higher daily consumption, and reduced likelihood of quitting (Colby et al. 2000; Kandel and Chen 2000).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, D. B. K.
- Venue
- Nicotine & Tobacco Research
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2000-08-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 263-274
- ISSN
- 1462-2203 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-994X
- OpenAlex
- W2170400987
- Cited by
- 261
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 4.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Nicotine & Tobacco Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01da009110-10)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH30906)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA00081, DA 09110)
- NIH Clinical Center
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Keywords
- nicotine dependence, cigarette smoking, sociodemographic differences, sex differences, racial and ethnic differences, age differences, nicotine sensitivity, adolescents, women, older adults, drug-related problems, risk thresholds
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Smoking, Time Factors, Tobacco Use Disorder, United States, Prevalence, Multivariate Analysis, Logistic Models
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
