Cited by 261Smoking Behavior and CessationSubstance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesPrenatal Substance Exposure Effects

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Extent of smoking and nicotine dependence in the United States: 19911993

Chen, Denise B. Kandel, Kevin·2000·Nicotine & Tobacco Research

DOI 10.1080/14622200050147538

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Abstract

Rates of nicotine dependence vary in different sociodemographic groups in the population. These group differences remain to be understood. The objective of this study is to specify the relationship between cigarette consumption and nicotine dependence and whether group differences are explained by quantity smoked or differential sensitivity to nicotine. The data used derived from National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (1991-1993), multistage area probability samples of the US population 12 years old and over, and anonymous structured household interviews, considering subjects who were last-month smokers (12,550 White, 4903 Black, 4839 Hispanic). The main outcome measure was last-year nicotine dependence based on symptoms of dependence and drug-related problems approximating DSM-IV dependence criteria. Rates are higher among females than males, Whites than minorities and the lowest among older adults. Dependence rates increase sharply up to half a pack of cigarettes smoked per day. At higher quantities, the increased risk for dependence is minimal. The higher rate of dependence among females than males results from a greater number of symptoms at the same quantity smoked. The similarity of adolescent and middle-adult rates results from the fact that adolescents smoke significantly fewer cigarettes than adults, but experience higher rates of dependence at the same levels of use. Although adults 50 and over are the heaviest smokers, they experience the lowest rates of dependence because of hypothesized lower sensitivity to increased quantity of nicotine intake. The higher rates among Whites than Blacks appear to result from heavier smoking and greater sensitivity to nicotine effects. It was concluded that adolescents, women and Whites are particularly vulnerable to becoming dependent on nicotine. Group-specific thresholds may be more appropriate criteria than an absolute threshold to define the risk for nicotine dependence.

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Result
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BackgroundInfluential
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BackgroundInfluential
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Background
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“Adolescents smoke fewer cigarettes than adults but are more likely to reach ND at equivalent levels of use ( Kandel & Chen, 2000 ).”
Background
Challenging the “Inoffensiveness” of Regular Cannabis Use by Its Associations with Other Current Risky Substance Use—A Census of 20-Year-Old Swiss Men
Gmel, G. E., Gaume, J., Clair, C., Michaud, P., Cornuz, J., & Daeppen, J. (2010) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph7010046 · Cited by 11
Racial differences in heritability of cigarette smoking in adolescents and young adults
Bares, C. B., Kendler, K. S., & MAES, H. H. M. (2016) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.06.028 · Cited by 10
“When African American adults smoke, they tend to be light smokers (smoke less than 10 cigarettes per day) (Kandel and Chen, 2000) and show signs of nicotine dependence when smoking 6 to 10 cigarettes per day (Okuyemi et al.”
Background
Electronic Cigarettes: Aggregate Harm
Bartter, T. C. (2015) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m15-0450 · Cited by 10
“The percentage that becomes addicted decreases steadily with increasing age (1, 2).”
Background
Racially Classified Social Group Differences in Cigarette Smoking, Nicotine Dependence, and Readiness to Quit
Rayens, M. K., Hahn, E. J., Fernander, A., & Okoli, C. T. C. (2013) · Journal of Addictions Nursing · doi:10.1097/jan.0b013e31829293b0 · Cited by 10
“Consistent with other studies (Kandel & Chen, 2000; Kandel et al., 2005), African Americans in our study reported lower nicotine dependence than did Caucasians.”
Result
Similarities in affect, perceived stress, and weight concerns between Black and White women who quit smoking during pregnancy
Levine, M. D., Marcus, M. D., & Leon‐Verdin, M. (2008) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200802323290 · Cited by 10
“…Connett, Buist, Gerald, & Eichenhorn, 2001; Sanchez-Johnsen, Spring, Sommerfeld, & Fitzgibbon, 2005), are less likely to be nicotine dependent (Kandel & Chen, 2000; Murray et al., 2001), metabolize nicotine more slowly (Perez-Stable, Herrera, Jacob, & Benowitz, 1998), and have more confidence…”
Racial/ethnic differences in the longitudinal progression of co-occurring negative affect and cigarette use: From adolescence to young adulthood
Bares, C. B., & Andrade, F. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.016 · Cited by 10
Association between psychiatric disorders and smoking stages within a representative clinic sample of Puerto Rican adolescents
Dierker, L., Sledjeski, E. M., Botello-Harbaum, M., Ramírez, R., Chavez, L. M., & CANINO, G. J. (2007) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.01.002 · Cited by 9
“While multi-ethnic community samples within the United States have shown that Hispanic adolescents exhibit reduced smoking rates compared to their Caucasian counterparts,[43,44] ethnically homogenous Hispanic groups have generally been underrepresented in behavioral health research.”
Background
Factors Related to Smoking in College Women
Mackey, M. C., McKinney, S. H., & Tavakoli, A. S. (2008) · Journal of Community Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/07370010802017141 · Cited by 10
Engaging African Americans in Smoking Cessation Programs
Wallen, J., Randolph, S. M., Carter‐Pokras, O., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Health Education · doi:10.1080/19325037.2014.893850 · Cited by 9
Adolescents' attitudes and self-perceptions about anti-tobacco advocacy
Carver, V. H. (2003) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyf030 · Cited by 9
“American youth have an advantage over white youth in that they use tobacco less (Kandel and Chen, 2000), but the present groups were about the same in their opinions of their own anti-tobacco”
Background
Cigarette Smoking Among Students at the University of Tuzla
Ibišević, M., Avdić, A., Osmanović, E., et al. (2015) · Medical Archives · doi:10.5455/medarh.2015.69.127-129 · Cited by 8
“(Which correlates with the status of a student) (7).”
Background
Effects of different types of smoking cessation behavioural therapy in disadvantaged areas in the Netherlands: an observational study.
Benson, F., Nierkens, V., Willemsen, M. C., & Stronks, K. (2016) · Tobacco Prevention & Cessation · doi:10.18332/tpc/61616 · Cited by 7
Identifying Shared Latent Dimensions of Psychological Symptoms: Implications for the Psychological Correlates of Smoking
Ameringer, K. J., Chou, C., Sussman, S. Y., Unger, J. B., & Leventhal, A. M. (2014) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-014-9467-5 · Cited by 7
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript found that risk for nicotine dependence increases most significantly from less than one to ten cigarettes per day and is minimal at levels higher than ten cigarettes per day (Kandel and Chen 2000).”
Immediate early gene expression reveals interactions between social and nicotine rewards on brain activity in adolescent male rats
Bastle, R. M., Peartree, N. A., Goenaga, J. G., Hatch, K. N., Henricks, A. M., Scott, S. N., Hood, L. E., & Neisewander, J. L. (2016) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.07.024 · Cited by 7
TOBACCO USE AND DEPENDENCE
Brook, J. S., Pahl, K., & Brook, D. W. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012373625-3.50007-3 · Cited by 6
N-acetylcysteine attenuates nicotine-induced kindling in female periadolescent rats
Okamura, A. M. N. C., Gomes, P. X. L., de Oliveira, G. V., de Araújo, F. Y. R., Tomaz, V. D. S., Filho, A. J. M. C., de Sousa, F. C. F., Vasconcelos, S. M. M., de Lucena, D. F., & Macêdo, D. S. (2016) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.010 · Cited by 5
“Besides nAChRs, dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens is also under the control of NMDA receptors (Kelley and Throne 1992).”
Nicotinic Signaling in Development
Fernandes, C., Lozada, A. F., & Berg, D. K. (2014) · The Receptors · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1167-7_6 · Cited by 6
Earlier smoking after waking and the risk of asthma: a cross-sectional study using NHANES data
Selya, A., Thapa, S., & Mehta, G. S. (2018) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-018-0672-y · Cited by 6
Shared versus specific features of psychological symptoms and cigarettes per day: structural relations and mediation by negative- and positive-reinforcement smoking
Ameringer, K. J., Chou, C., & Leventhal, A. M. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-014-9597-y · Cited by 5
“Heavier smoking is also associated with clinically relevant smoking factors, including more severe craving, withdrawal (Fidler et al., 2011), and nicotine dependence (Kandel & Chen, 2000), as well as risk for several diseases (Bazzano et al., 2003; Cheng et al., 2000; Law et al., 1997).”
Healthcare providers’ use of brief clinical interventions for adolescent smokers
Friend, K. B., & Colby, S. M. (2006) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1080/09687630600650639 · Cited by 5
“First, some empirical studies suggest that adolescent smokers may become nicotine dependent at lower levels of use than adults (DiFranza et al., 2002; Kandel & Chen, 2000).”
Background
Examining Arrest and Cigarette Smoking in Emerging Adulthood
Hassett-Walker, C., & Shadden, M. (2020) · Tobacco Use Insights · doi:10.1177/1179173x20904350 · Cited by 5
Faktor Tingkah laku Merokok Dalam Kalangan Mahasiswa Universiti
Bustan, L. (2012) · Personalia Pelajar · doi:10.17576/personalia.2101.2018.06 · Cited by 5
Smoking Behavior Among Low-Income Black Adults: Patterns and Correlates of Smoking Trajectories
Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J., Carey, M. P., Senn, T. E., & Vanable, P. A. (2010) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq142 · Cited by 5
“In our sample, most smokers exhibited a pattern of light smoking ( 10 CPD).”
BackgroundInfluential
Nicotine Dependence and WHO Mental Health Surveys
Hughes, J. R. (2004) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.292.9.1021-c · Cited by 5
The relationship between college class and cigarette smoking
Leppel, K. (2007) · Health Education · doi:10.1108/09654280710716888 · Cited by 5
The feasibility of a smoking cessation computer tailored expert system in Dutch general practice and community pharmacy setting
Hoving, C. (2007) · doi:10.26481/dis.20071207eh · Cited by 5
Nicotine dependence among undergraduates who use nicotine salt-based e-cigarettes
Singer, J. M., Tackett, A. P., Alalwan, M. A., & Roberts, M. E. (2024) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2023.2299425 · Cited by 5
Challenges in legitimizing further measures against smoking in jurisdictions with robust infrastructure for tobacco control: how far can the authorities allow themselves to go?
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Authors: Chen, D. B. K.
Venue: Nicotine & Tobacco Research
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2000-08-01
Volume: 2
Issue: 3
Pages: 263-274
ISSN: 1462-2203 (ISSN-L)
1469-994X
DOI: 10.1080/14622200050147538
OpenAlex: W2170400987
Cited by: 261
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 4.69
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Nicotine & Tobacco Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01da009110-10)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH30906)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA00081, DA 09110)
NIH Clinical Center
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
Keywords: nicotine dependence, cigarette smoking, sociodemographic differences, sex differences, racial and ethnic differences, age differences, nicotine sensitivity, adolescents, women, older adults, drug-related problems, risk thresholds
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Smoking, Time Factors, Tobacco Use Disorder, United States, Prevalence, Multivariate Analysis, Logistic Models

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Extent of smoking and nicotine dependence in the United States: 19911993

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Extent of smoking and nicotine dependence in the United States: 19911993