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Digital Stress over the Life Span: The Effects of Communication Load and Internet Multitasking on Perceived Stress and Psychological Health Impairments in a German Probability Sample
Abstract
The present study investigated the psychological health effects and motivational origins of digital stress based on a representative survey of 1,557 German Internet users between 14 and 85 years of age. Communication load resulting from private e-mails and social media messages as well as Internet multitasking were positively related to perceived stress and had significant indirect effects on burnout, depression, and anxiety. Perceived social pressure and the fear of missing out on information and social interaction were key drivers of communication load and Internet multitasking. Age significantly moderated the health effects of digital stress as well as the motivational drivers of communication load and Internet multitasking. The results, thus, underline the need to address digital stress from a life span perspective.
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“Past research has also demonstrated the smartphone ' s potential to elicit stress (e.g., Reinecke et al., 2017; Vahedi & Saiphoo, 2018).”
From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Reinecke et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“it has been previously shown that smartphone use (Reinecke et al., 2017; Vahedi & Saiphoo, 2018) and the salience dimension of online vigilance (Freytag et al., 2021; Gilbert et al., 2023) predict stress.”
From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Reinecke et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“For example, new communication norms and demands arising from hyperconnectivity (e.g., the need to check or respond to social media posts constantly) can lead to communication overload and higher levels of stress.28–30”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Second, several scholars contend that hyperconnectivity—the permanent availability of and connectivity to peers, media content, and online services through social media—can increase stress.17,27,28”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
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“A quantitative survey among Internet users, on the other hand, found perceived social pressure from friends to be stronger correlated with the communication patterns of younger digital media users than older users (Reinecke et al., 2017).”
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To text or talk: Does communication modality matter when providing criticism to others?
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Matthes, J., Neureiter, A., Stević, A., & Noetzel, S. (2024) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2024.102119 · Cited by 8
Erdem, H. D., Herrero, J., & Urueña, A. (2025) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2025a15 · Cited by 9
“Furthermore, the majority of research on psychosocial well-being and social digital pressure has been conducted within the field of digital stress studies (Hall et al., 2021; Khetawat & Steele, 2023; Nick et al., 2022; Reinecke et al., 2017; Steele et al., 2020).”
Braga, L. D. S., Moreira, B. D. S., Torres, J. L., Andrade, A. C. D. S., Lima, A. C. L., Vaz, C. T., Machado, E. L., Caiaffa, W. T., Ferri, C. P., & Mambrini, J. V. D. M. (2022) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xen106622 · Cited by 7
“Furthermore, digital media use can cause stress, and both digital stress and avoidance of use tend to be greater among older adults 14,20 .”
BackgroundBravo-Adasme, N., Cataldo, A., & Toledo, E. G. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11767-9 · Cited by 7
“Several factors can generate job burnout, including stress (Berg-Beckhoff et al., 2017; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Reinecke et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAksar, I. A., Danaee, M., Firdaus, A. S. B., & Gong, J. (2021) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2021.1901823 · Cited by 10
“The constant accessibility to media platforms through different gadgets have thus extended the online time of users, resulting in growing concerns about the psychological impacts of the online environment on its users (Reinecke et al., 2017).”
BackgroundEckert, S., Wallace, S. O., Metzger‐Riftkin, J., & Kolhoff, S. (2018) · CyberOrient · doi:10.1002/j.cyo2.20181201.0001 · Cited by 7
Li, B. J., & Yee, A. Z. H. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12876-9 · Cited by 6
Sabah, A., Alduais, A. M. S., Aljaberi, M. A. A., & Manouchehri, M. (2025) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.70017 · Cited by 6
“The Online and Offline Social Sensitivity concept was developed to measure variations in sensitivity to social cues across these contexts, providing valuable insights into the psychological effects of living in a digital age (Reinecke et al. 2017).”
InfluentialKern, M., Ohly, S., Ďuranová, L., & Friedrichs, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1439070 · Cited by 6
Brain network alterations in mobile phone use problem severity: A multimodal neuroimaging analysis
Yao, L., Hikida, K., Lu, Y., Wang, L., Dai, Q., Aki, M., Shibata, M., Zakia, H., Yang, J., Oishi, N., et al. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2025.00021 · Cited by 6
“This overload generates stress, which may be linked to depressive symptoms (Reinecke et al., 2017).”
Uluçay, D. M., & Kobak, K. (2020) · Ankara Üniversitesi ilef dergisi/Ankara üniversitesi ilef dergisi · doi:10.24955/ilef.827235 · Cited by 7
Fear of Missing Out Scale – A Nationwide Representative CAWI Survey in Poland
Jupowicz-Ginalska, A., Kisilowska, M., Baran, T., Wysocki, A., & Jasiewicz, J. (2021) · Central European Journal of Communication · doi:10.51480/1899-5101.13.3(27).1 · Cited by 6
“The results of this study support other representative surveys (Hampton et al., 2016; Reinecke et al., 2017; Bright & Logan, 2018) in the aspect of presenting FOMO as one of the inherent features of social media users, increasing their stress and discomfort.”
BackgroundResultBellmann, L., & Hübler, O. (2021) · Review of Managerial Science · doi:10.1007/s11846-020-00426-9 · Cited by 13
Academia in liquid modernity: Digital overload, cultivation, and authenticity in teaching work
Flynn, S. (2021) · The Review of Education Pedagogy & Cultural Studies · doi:10.1080/10714413.2021.2007208 · Cited by 10
Lin, X. Y., & Lachman, M. E. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231173928 · Cited by 6
“Age differences have been found in the frequency of interpersonal communications, network communication mode diversity, social support, and well-being (Courtin & Knapp, 2017; Hyde et al., 2013; Reinecke et al., 2017; Stone et al., 2010; Wrzus et al., 2012).”
BackgroundLee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., & Way, B. M. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/46309 · Cited by 7
“For example, scholars have argued that hyperconnectivity—the permanent availability of and connectivity to other people and various media contents on social media—can heighten stress [14,25,26].”
BackgroundKaouachi, A., Menaa, M., Rebbah, A. C., & Maazi, M. C. (2020) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20190708150749 · Cited by 6
Merlici, I.-A., Maftei, A., & Opariuc‐Dan, C. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2406252 · Cited by 11
“In this context, the present study focuses on information overload as a consequence of excessive time spent on social media, and as a potential predictor of psychological distress (Reinecke et al. 2017).”
Measuring Technostress in Everyday Life: Development and Validation of an Assessment Scale
Colledani, D., Barbaranelli, C., Robusto, E., & Anselmi, P. (2025) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/5793644 · Cited by 6
New Media Use and Mental Health of Married Women: Mediating Effects of Marital Quality
Zhou, D., Xu, Y., & He, Q. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11212909 · Cited by 9
“Intensive internet use for communication displaces face-to-face interaction, leading to negative outcomes such as enhanced social isolation and decreased opportunities for social support and integration [32–34].”
BackgroundMilovanović, B. M., & Cvjetković, M. (2024) · Verslas teorija ir praktika · doi:10.3846/btp.2024.19320 · Cited by 7
Doost, E. Z., & Zhang, W. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2356403 · Cited by 5
“…that social media use is associated with stress, but there are conflicting views on the stress outcomes of social media interruptions (Afifi et al., 2018; Kerr et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2008, 2019; Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008; Reinecke et al., 2017; Sonnentag et al., 2018; Tams et al., 2015, 2020).”
Livermon, S., Michel, A., Zhang, Y., Petz, K. D., Toner, E. R., Rucker, M., Boukhechba, M., Barnes, L. E., & Teachman, B. A. (2025) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000601 · Cited by 5
“Despite this extensive digital exposure, research shows that younger internet users are less affected by stress, burnout, depression, and anxiety related to communication load compared to those over age 50 [68].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Reinecke, L., Aufenanger, S., Beutel, M. E., Dreier, M., Quiring, O., Stark, B., Wölfling, K., & Müller, K. W.
- Affiliations
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Reinecke, Leonard
- ORCID
- Venue
- Media Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 90-115
- ISSN
- 1521-3269 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-785X
- OpenAlex
- W2302492465
- Cited by
- 387
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 51.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Media Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Forschungsschwerpunkt Medienkonvergenz [Research Center for Media Convergence] at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (not available)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Technostress in Professional Settings
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Keywords
- digital stress, communication load, perceived stress, burnout, depression, anxiety, social pressure, fear of missing out, social media, email, age differences, lifespan development, mental health
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