Social media use and systemic inflammation: The moderating role of self-esteem
Open accessAbstract
Social media use has become an important part of social life. However, little is known about its relation to physical health. Extending prior work on social media use and psychological well-being, the present research investigated how social media use is associated with a key indicator of health, systemic inflammation. Based on research on self-esteem and work on inflammation, the current study examined whether the link between social media use and inflammatory biomarkers would be moderated by self-esteem. A nationally probablistic sample of middle-aged adults (N = 863) completed self-report questionnaires on social media use, self-esteem, socio-demographic information, and health related behaviors. Approximately two years later, they provided a blood sample that was analyzed for C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), biomarkers of systemic inflammation. Consistent with our hypothesis, self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and these markers of inflammation. Specifically, as self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with CRP and IL-6 became stronger. These results held after controlling for socio-demographic information, health status, depressive symptoms, and medication usage. Social media use was not significantly correlated with either CRP or IL-6. The present research demonstrates physical health correlates of social media use and suggests self-esteem as a key variable that can moderate the relation between social media use and health.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a nationally probabilistic sample of 863 middle-aged adults from MIDUS-R, self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and systemic inflammation: as self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with CRP and IL-6 became stronger. Social media use itself was not a significant predictor of CRP or IL-6 in the regression models.
Key findings
- Self-esteem moderated the social media use–CRP association across Models 0–4: interaction coefficients were b = −0.003, p = .011 (Model 0); b = −0.003, p = .012 (Model 1); b = −0.002, p = .048 (Model 2); b = −0.002, p = .047 (Model 3); and b = −0.003, p = .031 (Model 4). As self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and CRP became stronger.
- For low self-esteem participants (1 SD below mean), social media use was associated with higher CRP; in Model 4, b = 0.03, p = .053, 95% CI [0.000, 0.05], and a unit increase in social media use was associated with a 0.13 μg/ml increase in unlogged CRP. This pattern was not observed among high self-esteem participants (ps = .27, .40, .35, .36, .31).
- The social media use × self-esteem interaction significantly predicted IL-6 in four of five models: Model 1 b = −0.002, p = .029; Model 2 p = .048; Model 3 p = .045; Model 4 p = .037; Model 0 p = .12. For low self-esteem participants in Model 4, b = 0.02, p = .049, 95% CI [0.000, 0.04], and a unit increase in social media use was associated with a 0.09 pg/ml increase in unlogged IL-6.
- Social media use was not significantly associated with CRP or IL-6 across regression models. Self-esteem was negatively associated with CRP in all five models and with IL-6 in one of five models.
Methods
- Data came from the MIDUS Refresher study and MIDUS Refresher Biomarker Project. The analytic sample was 863 adults (age range 26–78 years, M = 52.72, SD = 13.44; 450 females; 70.2% White) who completed survey measures and later provided blood samples about two years afterward (M = 22.16 months, SD = 8.87 months).
- Social media use was a composite of two items asking how often participants used social media to contact family members and friends in the past year (8-point scale, reverse-coded and averaged; α = 0.80, M = 4.56, SD = 2.30). Self-esteem was measured with seven Rosenberg self-esteem items (α = 0.78, M = 37.08, SD = 7.50). CRP and IL-6 were assayed from blood and log-transformed.
- Multiple regression models predicted CRP and IL-6 from standardized social media use, self-esteem, and their interaction. Models 0–4 sequentially controlled for socio-demographic factors, physical health status, depressive symptoms and antidepressant use, and anti-inflammatory medication use; simple slopes were tested for low and high self-esteem (±1 SD).
Limitations
- The paper states that the correlational design limits causal inference; effect sizes were small and comparable to those in social media–well-being research (r = −0.05 to −0.15), raising questions about clinical or practical significance; family-wise error rate was not controlled; social media use measured only contacting family and friends, not the full range of social media activities; the MIDUS biomarker sample is not nationally representative; and there was a time lag (M = 22.16 months, SD = 8.87 months) between the blood draw and survey that could have attenuated effects.
- The paper also notes that results should be interpreted cautiously and replicated, and that future work should examine other populations, such as adolescents.
- Evident from the text: social media use and self-esteem were self-reported, and the sample was middle-aged and 70.2% White, further constraining generalization.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 66 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
As self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with CRP became stronger.
“Specifically, as self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with CRP and IL-6 became stronger.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“In all models, as self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and CRP became stronger”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Social media use was not significantly correlated with IL-6.
“Social media use was not significantly correlated with either CRP or IL-6.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
As self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with IL-6 became stronger.
“Specifically, as self-esteem decreased, the positive association of social media use with CRP and IL-6 became stronger.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Self-esteem was negatively correlated with CRP in all five models.
“Self-esteem was negatively correlated with CRP in all of the five models.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Social media use was not significantly correlated with CRP.
“Social media use was not significantly correlated with either CRP or IL-6.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Across Models 0–4, social media use was not significantly associated with CRP.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and IL-6.
“Consistent with our hypothesis, self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and these markers of inflammation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and CRP.
“Consistent with our hypothesis, self-esteem moderated the association between social media use and these markers of inflammation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The results showed that as self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and inflammation became stronger.
“The results showed that as self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and inflammation became stronger.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Social media use was not associated with higher systemic inflammation in this study.
“Notably, social media use was not associated with higher systemic inflammation in this study”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Social media use was not a significant predictor of CRP or IL-6 in any of the regression models.
“It was not a significant predictor of CRP or IL-6 in any of our regression models”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Frequent interactions with others on social media did not result in an improved inflammatory profile.
“frequent interactions with others on social media did not result in an improved inflammatory profile.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Systemic inflammation is a predictor of multiple disease states such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.
- Findingown data
For LSEs, social media use was related to higher levels of CRP and IL-6.
“Specifically, for LSEs, social media use was related to higher levels of CRP and IL-6.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
As self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and IL-6 became stronger.
“As self-esteem decreased, the positive association between social media use and IL-6 became stronger (see Fig. 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The social media use × self-esteem interaction significantly predicted IL-6 in four of the five models.
“Consistent with our hypothesis, the social media use X self-esteem interaction significantly predicted IL-6 in four of the five models”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The relation between social media use and inflammation was not observed among HSEs.
“However, the same relation was not observed among HSEs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For LSEs (1 SD below mean), social media use was positively associated with IL-6.
“Simple slopes analyses indicated that for LSEs (1 SD below mean), social media use was positively associated with IL-6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Across Models 0-4, social media use was not significantly correlated with IL-6.
“Across Models 0–4, social media use was not significantly correlated with IL-6.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Self-esteem was negatively associated with IL-6 in models without the drug covariates.
“and with IL-6 in models without the drug covariates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Our findings indicate that social media use was positively associated with systemic inflammation for middle-aged adults lower in self-esteem.
“However, our findings also indicate that social media use was positively associated with systemic inflammation for middle-aged adults lower in self-esteem.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The effect sizes observed in the current study are small.
“Second, the effect sizes observed in the current study are small”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Self-esteem was negatively associated with CRP in all models.
“self-esteem was negatively associated with CRP in all models”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
LSEs tend to interpret interpersonal events in ways that validate their negative self-views.
“Notably, LSEs tend to interpret interpersonal events in ways that validate their negative self-views (Murray et al., 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Murray et al., 1998 source
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- Premisecitation
HSEs benefit from receiving compliments and social support as it validates and bolsters their positive self-views.
“For example, unlike LSEs who feel insecure after receiving a compliment, HSEs benefit from receiving compliments and social support as it validates and bolsters their positive self-views (Lee and Way, 2019; Marigold et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
The link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics or goals.
“Instead, emerging perspectives suggest that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics or goals (Lee et al., 2015; Rae and Lonborg, 2015; Sheldon and Bryant, 2016; Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020; see Orben, 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Negative mood and fixation on negative aspects can lead to undermined physical health.
“Further, they are more likely to fixate on negative aspects of themselves and maintain negative mood (Wood and Forest, 2016), which can lead to undermined physical health (e.g., Cohen et al., 2007; Glassman and Shapiro, 1998; Rozanski et al., 1999; Wulsin et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
These results held after controlling for socio-demographic information, health status, depressive symptoms, and medication usage.
“These results held after controlling for socio-demographic information, health status, depressive symptoms, and medication usage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
People low in self-esteem (LSEs) feel anxious and stressed in social situations because they fear being disapproved or rejected by others.
“In general, people low in self-esteem (LSEs) feel anxious and stressed in social situations because they fear of being disapproved or rejected by others (Wood and Forest, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wood and Forest, 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Social integration and related social processes are reliably associated with lower levels of IL-6 and CRP.
“Emerging research indicates that social integration and related social processes (e.g., social support, quality of social interactions) are reliably associated with lower levels of IL-6 and CRP (see Uchino et al., 2018 for a meta-analysis).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Uchino et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
These results provide preliminary evidence that self-esteem may play a role in moderating the relation between social media use and some inflammatory markers.
“These results provide preliminary evidence that self-esteem may play a role in moderating the relation between social media use and some inflammatory markers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Chronic psychological stress, such as experienced by LSEs relative to HSEs when using social media, can lead to elevated levels of systemic inflammation over time.
“The reason to focus on inflammation is that chronic psychological stress, such as experienced by LSEs relative to HSEs when using social media, can lead to elevated levels of systemic inflammation over time (Johnson et al., 2013; Nersesian et al., 2018; Walker et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
The overly flattering and self-focused nature of the social media environment may not be a nurturing social space for LSEs.
“The overly flattering and self-focused nature of the social media environment may not be a nurturing social space for LSEs (Forest and Wood, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Forest and Wood, 2012 source
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- Premisecitation
Older adults have different goals and motivations for using social media compared with younger adults.
“studies show that older adults have different goals and motivations for using social media compared with younger adults (Leist, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leist, 2013 source
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- Premisecitation
Such inflammation is a potent driver of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes.
“Such inflammation is a potent driver of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes (Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, 2010; Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010; Uchino et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Very little work has examined the relation between social media use and biological measures that are health related.
“To our knowledge, very little work has examined the relation between social media use and biological measures that are health related (see Afifi et al., 2018 for an exception).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Afifi et al., 2018 source
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- Premisecitation
Threats to social safety can undermine health.
“The collective evidence linking systemic inflammation to the quality of social relationships and interactions is consistent with theory that threats to social safety (e.g., social conflict, isolation, rejection, exclusion) can undermine health (Slavich, 2020; also see Cole et al., 2015 for a related perspective on perceived social isolation and gene expression).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The current results indicate that the impact of social media use may depend on who uses it.
“Second, by showing the moderating role of self-esteem, the current results indicate that the impact of social media use may depend on “who” uses it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The findings show physical health correlates of social media use utilizing two biological measures.
“First, we extend research on social media use and well-being (e.g., Kross et al., 2021) by showing the physical health correlates of social media use utilizing two biological measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kross et al., 2021 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Systemic inflammation is a predictor of multiple disease states such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.
- Study design and conductown data
Although results differed slightly depending on covariates and exclusion criteria, the pattern of results remained largely consistent and similar for both markers of inflammation.
“Although the results differed slightly depending on the covariates included and different exclusion criteria, the pattern of results remained largely consistent and similar for both markers of inflammation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
We controlled for extraneous factors that have been associated with inflammation.
“Based on prior work (Horn et al., 2018; Lee and Way, 2019; O'Connor et al., 2009), we controlled for extraneous factors that have been associated with inflammation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Such an environment may be especially stressful for LSEs who tend to perceive others' positive events as a threat to their belonging.
“Such an environment may be especially stressful for LSEs who tend to perceive others’ positive events as a threat to their belonging (Forest and Wood, 2012; see Fox and Moreland, 2015 for a discussion on Facebook stress; also see Lee et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
Statistically adjusting for the time lag had no effect on the results.
“Statistically adjusting for this time lag had no effect on the results (see Supplement for further discussion).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The relation between social media use and chronic inflammation was moderated by self-esteem.
“In conclusion, the relation between social media use and chronic inflammation was moderated by self-esteem.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
The present research relied on a correlational design, limiting the ability to make causal inferences about the relation between social media use and systemic inflammation.
“First, the present research relied on a correlational design, limiting our ability to make causal inferences about the relation between social media use and systemic inflammation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
The MIDUS biomarker sample is not nationally representative.
“it is not nationally representative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The relationship between self-esteem and CRP seen here is not universally replicated.
“Thus, the relationship between self-esteem and CRP seen here is not universally replicated”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The effect sizes are comparable to those typically found in studies on social media use and psychological well-being (from r = −0.05 to r = −0.15).
“though comparable to those typically found in studies on social media use and psychological well-being (from r = −0.05 to r = −0.15).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The link between social media use and inflammation is moderated by a third variable-for example, self-esteem.
“we believe a more plausible story is that the link between social media use and inflammation is moderated by a third variable—for example, self-esteem.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 13
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataZero-order correlations revealed that social media use was not significantly associated with CRP and negatively associated with IL-6.
“zero-order correlations revealed that social media use was not significantly associated with CRP and negatively associated with IL-6 (unexpectedly).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataSelf-esteem was negatively associated with IL-6 in one of the five models.
“Self-esteem was negatively associated with IL-6 in one of the five models.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenThe present study involved middle-aged adults (mean age: 52.72 years old).
“the present study involved middle-aged adults (mean age: 52.72 years old)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe MIDUS biomarker sample is large and diverse in terms of its sociodemographic distribution.
“although the MIDUS biomarker sample is large and diverse in terms of its sociodemographic distribution”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationown dataThe small confidence intervals indicated that the effect was estimated with precision.
“the small confidence intervals indicated that this effect, while small, was estimated with precision.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA large body of research indicates a small, negative association between social media use and psychological well-being.
“Although there is no consensus, a large body of research indicates a small, negative association between social media use and psychological well-being (Liu et al., 2019; Kross et al., 2021; also see Orben et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationRecent work has reported no significant link between social media use and well-being.
“However, recent work has also reported no significant link between social media use and well-being (Odgers and Jensen, 2020; Orben and Przybylski, 2019) and suggested that social media use itself may not be a strong predictor of well-being outcomes (Coyne et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2019; Heffer et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Stieger and Lewetz, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationFacebook use predicted declines in affective and cognitive well-being in a longitudinal study.
“For example, in a longitudinal study, Facebook use predicted declines in affective and cognitive well-being (Kross et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kross et al., 2013 source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLSEs are more likely to fixate on negative aspects of themselves and maintain negative mood.
“Further, they are more likely to fixate on negative aspects of themselves and maintain negative mood (Wood and Forest, 2016), which can lead to undermined physical health (e.g., Cohen et al., 2007; Glassman and Shapiro, 1998; Rozanski et al., 1999; Wulsin et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wood and Forest, 2016
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLimiting or abstaining from social media use reduced loneliness and depression and enhanced life satisfaction.
“Other studies found that limiting or abstaining from social media use reduced loneliness and depression, as well as enhancing life satisfaction (Hunt et al., 2018; Tromholt, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPeople high in self-esteem (HSEs) tend to cultivate high-quality relationships with others and use them as a resource for self-affirmation.
“In contrast, people high in self-esteem (HSEs) tend to cultivate high-quality relationships with others and use them as a resource for self-affirmation (Murray et al., 1998).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Murray et al., 1998 source
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PremisecitationPerceived social support was associated with lower CRP only for HSEs, presumably because LSEs' negative self-view often prevents them from benefiting from supportive relationships.
“However, recent work found that perceived social support was associated with lower CRP only for HSEs, presumably because LSEs’ negative self-view often prevents them from benefiting from supportive relationships (Lee and Way, 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lee and Way, 2019 source
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PremisecitationConstant exposure to positive information about others can trigger upward social comparison and elicit envy, which is linked to lower well-being.
“Constant exposure to positive information about others can trigger upward social comparison and elicit envy, which is linked to lower well-being (Verduyn et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Verduyn et al., 2015 source
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InterpretationreasoningExtant research suggests that self-esteem may play a moderating role in the link between social media use and inflammation.
“Taken together, extant research suggests that self-esteem may play a moderating role in the link between social media use and inflammation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationRecent recommendations suggest identifying a specific subpopulation (e.g., age, personality) when making claims about emergent technology effects.
“This perspective is consistent with recent recommendations to identify a specific subpopulation (e.g., age, personality) when making claims about emergent technology effects (Orben, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Orben, 2020 source
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Study design and conductnone givenWe excluded participants with lupus/autoimmune disorder, under cancer treatment, taking adrenal cortical steroids, immunosuppressants, or immunostimulants.
“We also excluded 38 participants who had lupus/autoimmune disorder, 46 participants who were under cancer treatment/therapy, 21 participants taking adrenal cortical steroids (i.e., prednisone), 6 participants taking immunosuppressants (i.e. Natalizumab), and one participant taking an immunostimulant.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAfifi et al. (2018) found a positive association between Facebook use and IL-6 only among adolescents; the same pattern was not observed among the mothers and fathers in their study.
“In fact, Afifi et al. (2018) found a positive association between Facebook use and IL-6 only among adolescents; the same pattern was not observed among the mothers and fathers in their study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Afifi et al., 2018 source
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PremisecitationMedications have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties.
“as they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties (see Horn et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Horn et al., 2018 source
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PremisecitationOn social media, people tend to portray themselves in overly positive manners and share positive life events more than negative ones.
“On social media, people tend to portray themselves in overly positive manners and share positive life events more than negative ones (Kross et al., 2013).”
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PremisecitationHSEs may be buffered from these processes as they tend to focus on their positive aspects and are less affected by the potential for rejection.
“In contrast, HSEs may be buffered from these processes as they tend to focus on their positive aspects and are less affected by the potential for rejection (Wood and Forest, 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wood and Forest, 2016
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Study design and conductown dataSensitivity analyses showed how different exclusion criteria impacted results.
“See Supplement for details on sensitivity analyses showing how different exclusion criteria impacted results.”
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PremisecitationOlder women who had satisfying relationships with others had lower IL-6.
“For example, older women who had satisfying relationships with others had lower IL-6 (Friedman et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Friedman et al., 2005
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PremisecitationAfifi et al. (2018) discovered a positive correlation between Facebook use and IL-6 among adolescents.
“findings from Afifi et al. (2018), which discovered a positive correlation between Facebook use and IL-6 among adolescents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Afifi et al., 2018 source
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PremisecitationFrequent face-to-face social interactions generally promote health.
“Although frequent face-to-face social interactions generally promote health (e.g., Cohen, 2004)”
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PremisecitationDifferent ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being.
“the different ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being (e.g., Verduyn et al., 2015; see Clark et al., 2018)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationRecent work found a negative association between a construct that includes self-esteem, psychological resources (e.g., optimism, mastery, self-esteem) and various inflammatory markers.
“This is consistent with some recent work that found a negative association between a construct that includes self-esteem, psychological resources (e.g., optimism, mastery, self-esteem) and various inflammatory markers (e.g., Marteinsdottir et al., 2016; Stokes, 2020).”
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- cites Stokes, 2020
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Study design and conductown dataThere was a time lag (M = 22.16 months; SD = 8.87 months) between the blood draw and completion of the survey containing the social media use and self-esteem items.
“Finally, there was a time lag (M = 22.16 months; SD = 8.87 months) between the blood draw and completion of the survey containing the social media use and self-esteem items.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationThe social media use measure is in line with how some scholars define "active" usage.
“Although our social media use measure is in line with how some scholars define “active” usage (e.g., Verduyn et al., 2015)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Verduyn et al., 2015 source
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PremisecitationOther studies report no reliable link between self-esteem and systemic inflammation or only a significant correlation under certain contexts.
“However, other studies also report no reliable link between self-esteem and systemic inflammation (Chiang et al., 2019; Kim and Thomas, 2019) or only a significant correlation under certain contexts (Elliot and Chapman, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chiang et al., 2019 source
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- cites Kim and Thomas, 2019
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- cites Elliot and Chapman, 2016
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Study design and conductnone givenIn this study, the potential increase in family-wise error rate across the analyses was not controlled.
“Related, in this study the potential increase in family-wise error rate across the analyses was not controlled.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics.
“the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics (Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThis study measured one type of social media usage (i.e., contacting family members and friends).
“Third, it is important to note that this study measured one type of social media usage (i.e., contacting family members and friends).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe present research demonstrates that the link between social media use and health may be nuanced and highlights the importance of identifying moderators at the individual difference level.
“To this end, the present research demonstrates that the link between social media use and health may be nuanced and highlights the importance of identifying moderators at the individual difference level.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Social media is prevalent in our social lives.
- Rests on an assumption: Social relationships are important to physical health.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSocial media use itself may not be a strong predictor of well-being outcomes.
“recent perspectives suggesting that social media use itself may not be a strong predictor of well-being outcomes (Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe social media use measure does not fully capture the wide array of activities people can engage in on social media.
“it does not fully capture the wide array of activities people can engage in on social media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Little is known about how social media use relates to physical health.
“However, in contrast to the vast amount of work on social media's impact on psychological well-being, little is known about how social media use relates to physical health.”
“However, little is known about its relation to physical health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Systemic inflammation is a predictor of multiple disease states such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.
“systemic inflammation, a predictor of multiple disease states such as cancer and cardiovascular disease”
The paper relies on this without support.
Social media is prevalent in our social lives.
“Given the prevalence of social media in our social lives”
The paper relies on this without support.
Social relationships are important to physical health.
“and the importance of social relationships to physical health”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A small number of recent studies suggest a link between social media use and physical health.
“Nevertheless, a small number of recent studies suggest a link between social media use and physical health.11–14”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [12]
The analyses controlled for sociodemographic factors, health behaviors, depressive symptoms, and birth control pill use based on prior work.
“Based on prior work,12,45,46 we controlled for extraneous factors associated with inflammation.”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [12]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Abstract denies a significant IL-6 correlation shown in Table 1
MajorTable 1 marks the correlation between social media use and IL-6 as significant, and the discussion describes it as negative. The abstract says social media use was not significantly correlated with either biomarker.
“Social media use was not significantly correlated with either CRP or IL-6.”
“| 4. log_IL6 | -.08∗ | -.09∗ | .58∗∗ |”
Discussion overstates self-esteem's association with IL-6
MinorThe discussion says self-esteem was negatively associated with IL-6 in models without drug covariates. Table 2 shows a significant negative coefficient only in Model 1; Models 0 and 2 also lack drug covariates but have p = .06 and p = .09.
“self-esteem was negatively associated with CRP in all models and with IL-6 in models without the drug covariates.”
“| SE | -.19 (<.001) | -.09 (.06) | -.19 (<.001) | -.16 (.001) | -.11 (.015) | -.07 (.09) | -.10 (.045) | -.04 (.48) | -.10 (.049) | -.05 (.36) |”
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Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1 · Cited by 1,500 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This raises questions about whether the findings have clinical or practical significance (see Kross et al., 2021; Odgers and Jensen, 2020; Orben and Przybylski, 2019).”
BackgroundElectronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review
Cain, N., & Gradisar, M. (2010) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006 · Cited by 1,376 · cited 1× · see citing works
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BackgroundThomée, S., Härenstam, A., & Hagberg, M. (2011) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-66 · Cited by 1,269 · see citing works
Odgers, C. L., & Jensen, M. R. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13190 · Cited by 1,189 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This raises questions about whether the findings have clinical or practical significance (see Kross et al., 2021; Odgers and Jensen, 2020; Orben and Przybylski, 2019).”
BackgroundInstagram: Motives for its use and relationship to narcissism and contextual age
Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.059 · Cited by 1,095 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Instead, emerging perspectives suggest that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics or goals (Lee et al., 2015; Rae and Lonborg, 2015; Sheldon and Bryant, 2016; Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020; see Orben, 2020).”
BackgroundPassive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence.
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., Ybarra, O., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000057 · Cited by 988 · see citing works
Self-citationNo More FOMO: Limiting Social Media Decreases Loneliness and Depression
Hunt, M. G., Marx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751 · Cited by 947 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Other studies found that limiting or abstaining from social media use reduced loneliness and depression, as well as enhancing life satisfaction (Hunt et al., 2018; Tromholt, 2016).”
BackgroundLee, A. R., Son, S.-M., & Kim, K. K. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.011 · Cited by 814 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Way). is an open access article under t 2015; Lee et al., 2016; Morin-Major et al., 2016; Reinecke et al., 2016), depression (e.g., Riehm et al., 2019; Twenge et al., 2018), or lower quality of sleep (e.g., Cain and Gradisar, 2010; Thomee et al., 2011)— processes closely linked to physical health…”
BackgroundFox, J., & Moreland, J. J. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.083 · Cited by 763 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Such an environment may be especially stressful for LSEs who tend to perceive others’ positive events as a threat to their belonging (Forest andWood, 2012; see Fox and Moreland, 2015 for a discussion on Facebook stress; also see Lee et al., 2016).”
BackgroundA systematic review of the mortality of depression
Wulsin, L. R., Vaillant, G. E., & Wells, V. E. (1999) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-199901000-00003 · Cited by 703 · see citing works
Does time spent using social media impact mental health?: An eight year longitudinal study
Coyne, S. M., Rogers, A. A., Zurcher, J. D., Stockdale, L., & Booth, M. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.106160 · Cited by 701 · cited 4× · see citing works
“…became more integrated into people's social lives, research examining its impact on psychological well-being has exploded in the past decade (e.g., Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Huang, 2017; Hunt et al., 2018; Kross et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Primack et al.,…”
BackgroundInfluentialDepression and the Course of Coronary Artery Disease
Glassman, A. H., & Shapiro, P. A. (1998) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.155.1.4 · Cited by 671 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, they are more likely to fixate on negative aspects of themselves and maintain negative mood (Wood and Forest, 2016), which can lead to undermined physical health (e.g., Cohen et al., 2007; Glassman and Shapiro, 1998; Rozanski et al., 1999; Wulsin et al., 1999).”
BackgroundPictures speak louder than words: motivations for using Instagram
Lee, E., Lee, J.-A., Moon, J. H., & Sung, Y. (2015) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0157 · Cited by 589 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Instead, emerging perspectives suggest that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics or goals (Lee et al., 2015; Rae and Lonborg, 2015; Sheldon and Bryant, 2016; Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020; see Orben, 2020).”
BackgroundPrimack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., & James, A. E. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.013 · Cited by 581 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…well-being has exploded in the past decade (e.g., Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Huang, 2017; Hunt et al., 2018; Kross et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Primack et al., 2017; Shakya and Christakis, 2017; Song et al., 2014; Tromholt, 2016; Verduyn et al., 2015).”
BackgroundForest, A. L., & Wood, J. V. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611429709 · Cited by 547 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The overly flattering and self-focused nature of the social media environment may not be a nurturing social space for LSEs (Forest and Wood, 2012).”
BackgroundDeters, F. G., & Mehl, M. R. (2013) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550612469233 · Cited by 523 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Relatedly, the approach-oriented nature of HSEs in social situations may lead them to use social media more “actively”, which has been shown to buffer the negative well-being impact of social media use (Deters and Mehl, 2013; Verduyn et al., 2015).”
BackgroundRiehm, K. E., Feder, K. A., Tormohlen, K. N., Crum, R. M., Young, A. S., Green, K. M., Pacek, L. R., La Flair, L. N., & Mojtabai, R. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2325 · Cited by 511 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Way). is an open access article under t 2015; Lee et al., 2016; Morin-Major et al., 2016; Reinecke et al., 2016), depression (e.g., Riehm et al., 2019; Twenge et al., 2018), or lower quality of sleep (e.g., Cain and Gradisar, 2010; Thomee et al., 2011)— processes closely linked to physical health…”
BackgroundSlavich, G. M. (2020) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045159 · Cited by 502 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…of social relationships and interactions is consistent with theory that threats to social safety (e.g., social conflict, isolation, rejection, exclusion) can undermine health (Slavich, 2020; also see Cole et al., 2015 for a related perspective on perceived social isolation and gene expression).”
BackgroundO’Connor, M.-F., Bower, J. E., Cho, H. J., Creswell, J. D., Dimitrov, S., Hamby, M. E., Hoyt, M. A., Martin, J. L., Robles, T. F., Sloan, E. K., et al. (2009) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2009.04.005 · Cited by 500 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Based on prior work (Horn et al., 2018; Lee and Way, 2019; O'Connor et al., 2009), we controlled for extraneous factors that have been associated with inflammation.”
MethodSocial media’s enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction
Orben, A., Dienlin, T., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1902058116 · Cited by 485 · cited 6× · see citing works
“Given recent perspectives suggesting that social media use itself may not be a strong predictor of well-being outcomes (Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019) and that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics (Sheldon et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialClose relationships, inflammation, and health
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Gouin, J.-P., & Hantsoo, L. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.09.003 · Cited by 480 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Such inflammation is a potent driver of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes (Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, 2010; Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010; Uchino et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2012).”
BackgroundSocial Media and Well-Being: Pitfalls, Progress, and Next Steps
Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Sheppes, G., Costello, C. K., Jonides, J., & Ybarra, O. (2021) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.10.005 · Cited by 474 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Although there is no consensus, a large body of research indicates a small, negative association between social media use and psychological well-being (Liu et al., 2019; Kross et al., 2021; also see Orben et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodTime spent on social network sites and psychological well-being: a meta-analysis
Huang, C. (2017) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2016.0758 · Cited by 457 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…lives, research examining its impact on psychological well-being has exploded in the past decade (e.g., Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Huang, 2017; Hunt et al., 2018; Kross et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Primack et al., 2017; Shakya and Christakis, 2017; Song et…”
BackgroundDoes Facebook make you lonely?: A meta analysis
Song, H., Zmyslinski-Seelig, A., Kim, J.-Y., Drent, A. M., Victor, A., Omori, K., & Allen, M. R. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.011 · Cited by 454 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…well-being has exploded in the past decade (e.g., Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Huang, 2017; Hunt et al., 2018; Kross et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Primack et al., 2017; Shakya and Christakis, 2017; Song et al., 2014; Tromholt, 2016; Verduyn et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSocial Network Sites and Well-Being: The Role of Social Connection
Clark, J. L., Algoe, S. B., & Green, M. C. (2018) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721417730833 · Cited by 451 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…for different purposes, and the different ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being (e.g., Verduyn et al., 2015; see Clark et al., 2018), future research should measure different activities people engage in on social media (e.g., reading the news, sharing…”
BackgroundThe Facebook experiment: Quitting Facebook leads to higher levels of well-being
Tromholt, M. (2016) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2016.0259 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status and Health: Mediating and Moderating Factors
Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2013) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185634 · Cited by 402 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Thus, the relationship between self-esteem and CRP seen here is not universally replicated and future research may clarify how and when various individual psychological characteristics are associated with systemic inflammation (Chen and Miller, 2013).”
BackgroundThe Perils of Partialling: Cautionary Tales from Aggression and Psychopathy
Lynam, D. R., Hoyle, R. H., & Newman, J. P. (2006) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191106290562 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Reinecke, L., Aufenanger, S., Beutel, M. E., Dreier, M., Quiring, O., Stark, B., Wölfling, K., & Müller, K. W. (2017) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2015.1121832 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Social media use of older adults: a mini-review
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“However, it is important to note that the present study involved middle-aged adults (mean age: 52.72 years old); studies show that older adults have different goals and motivations for using social media compared with younger adults (Leist, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialAssociation of Facebook Use With Compromised Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study
Shakya, H. B., & Christakis, N. A. (2017) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kww189 · Cited by 378 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…well-being has exploded in the past decade (e.g., Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Huang, 2017; Hunt et al., 2018; Kross et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Primack et al., 2017; Shakya and Christakis, 2017; Song et al., 2014; Tromholt, 2016; Verduyn et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSocial support, social integration, and inflammatory cytokines: a meta-analysis
Uchino, B. N., Trettevik, R., Kent de Grey, R. G., Cronan, S., Hogan, J., & Baucom, B. R. W. (2018) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000594 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
The Sisyphean Cycle of Technology Panics
Orben, A. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620919372 · Cited by 316 · cited 3× · see citing works
“, age, personality) when making claims about emergent technology effects (Orben, 2020).”
BackgroundResultCole, S. W., Capitanio, J. P., Chun, K., Arevalo, J. M. G., Ma, J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1514249112 · Cited by 310 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…of social relationships and interactions is consistent with theory that threats to social safety (e.g., social conflict, isolation, rejection, exclusion) can undermine health (Slavich, 2020; also see Cole et al., 2015 for a related perspective on perceived social isolation and gene expression).”
BackgroundHeffer, T., Good, M., Daly, O., MacDonell, E., & Willoughby, T. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702618812727 · Cited by 278 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Given recent perspectives suggesting that social media use itself may not be a strong predictor of well-being outcomes (Coyne et al., 2020; Heffer et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019) and that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics (Sheldon et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialThrough the looking glass darkly? When self-doubts turn into relationship insecurities.
Murray, S., Holmes, J. G., MacDonald, G. W., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.75.6.1459 · Cited by 276 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Notably, LSEs tend to interpret interpersonal events in ways that validate their negative self-views (Murray et al., 1998).”
BackgroundThrough the looking glass darkly? When self-doubts turn into relationship insecurities
Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., MacDonald, G., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1459 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF HEALTH-RELATED PRACTICES
Wingard, D. L., Berkman, L. F., & Brand, R. (1982) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113466 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Friedman, E. M., Hayney, M., Love, G. D., Singer, B. H., & Ryff, C. D. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.3.305 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Marigold, D. C., Holmes, J. G., & Ross, M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.232 · Cited by 155 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, unlike LSEs who feel insecure after receiving a compliment, HSEs benefit from receiving compliments and social support as it validates and bolsters their positive self-views (Lee and Way, 2019; Marigold et al., 2007).”
BackgroundStieger, S., & Lewetz, D. (2018) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.0070 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Horn, S. R., Long, M. M., Nelson, B. W., Allen, N. B., Fisher, P. A., & Byrne, M. L. (2018) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2018.06.016 · Cited by 129 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Based on prior research (Horn et al., 2018; Lee andWay, 2019), the models sequentially controlled for the following covariates: (1) socio-demographic factors, (2) physical health status, (3) depressive symptoms and antidepressants use, and (4) use of drugs with anti-inflammatory properties (i.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialJohnson, T. V., Abbasi, A., & Master, V. A. (2013) · Molecular Diagnosis & Therapy · doi:10.1007/s40291-013-0026-7 · Cited by 121 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The reason to focus on inflammation is that chronic psychological stress, such as experienced by LSEs relative to HSEs when using social media, can lead to elevated levels of systemic inflammation over time (Johnson et al., 2013; Nersesian et al., 2018; Walker et al., 2019).”
BackgroundNersesian, P. V., Han, H.-R., Yenokyan, G., Blumenthal, R. S., Nolan, M. T., Hladek, M. D., & Szanton, S. L. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.04.007 · Cited by 120 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The reason to focus on inflammation is that chronic psychological stress, such as experienced by LSEs relative to HSEs when using social media, can lead to elevated levels of systemic inflammation over time (Johnson et al., 2013; Nersesian et al., 2018; Walker et al., 2019).”
BackgroundExperimentally manipulating social media abstinence: results of a four-week diary study
Hall, J. A., Xing, C., Ross, E. M., & Johnson, R. M. (2021) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2019.1688171 · Cited by 120 · cited 1× · see citing works
“(Coyne et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2019; Heffer et al., 2019; Orben et al., 2019; Stieger and Lewetz, 2018).”
Rae, J. R., & Lonborg, S. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00771 · Cited by 115 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Instead, emerging perspectives suggest that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics or goals (Lee et al., 2015; Rae and Lonborg, 2015; Sheldon and Bryant, 2016; Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020; see Orben, 2020).”
BackgroundWalker, E., Ploubidis, G., & Fancourt, D. (2019) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.08.189 · Cited by 104 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Additionally, we controlled participants' ability to carry out daily activities using an adapted version of the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale (Ware and Sherbourne, 1992): Participants used a 4-point scale (1 ¼ a lot, 4 ¼ not at all) to evaluate their ability to complete daily life activities (e.g., “Ho…”
MethodFacebook behaviors associated with diurnal cortisol in adolescents: Is befriending stressful?
Morin-Major, J. K., Marin, M.-F., Durand, N., Wan, N., Juster, R.-P., & Lupien, S. J. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.005 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Afifi, T. D., Zamanzadeh, N., Harrison, K., & Acevedo Callejas, M. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.010 · Cited by 75 · cited 3× · see citing works
“To our knowledge, very little work has examined the relation between social media use and biological measures that are health related (see Afifi et al., 2018 for an exception).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialC-Reactive Protein, Interleukin 6 and Lung Cancer Risk: A Meta-Analysis
Zhou, B., Liu, J., Wang, Z., & Xi, T. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043075 · Cited by 71 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Such inflammation is a potent driver of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes (Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, 2010; Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010; Uchino et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2012).”
BackgroundElliot, A. J., & Chapman, B. P. (2016) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000392 · Cited by 56 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2019; Kim and Thomas, 2019) or only a significant correlation under certain contexts (Elliot and Chapman, 2016).”
BackgroundPredictors of problematic social media use: personality and life-position indicators
Sheldon, P., Antony, M. G., & Sykes, B. (2021) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294120934706 · Cited by 55 · cited 3× · see citing works
“, 2019) and that the link between social media use and well-being may be moderated by an individual's personality characteristics (Sheldon et al., 2021; Tobin et al., 2020), we believe a more plausible story is that the link between social media use and inflammation is moderated by a third variable—for example, self-e…”
BackgroundStress, psychological resources, and HPA and inflammatory reactivity during late adolescence
Chiang, J. J., Ko, A., Bower, J. E., Taylor, S. E., Irwin, M. R., & Fuligni, A. J. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418000287 · Cited by 44 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, other studies also report no reliable link between self-esteem and systemic inflammation (Chiang et al., 2019; Kim and Thomas, 2019) or only a significant correlation under certain contexts (Elliot and Chapman, 2016).”
BackgroundPerceived social support and chronic inflammation: The moderating role of self-esteem.
Lee, D. S., & Way, B. M. (2019) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000746 · Cited by 43 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Based on prior work (Horn et al., 2018; Lee and Way, 2019; O'Connor et al., 2009), we controlled for extraneous factors that have been associated with inflammation.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationDirect and Indirect Pathways From Social Support to Health?
Kim, S., & Thomas, P. A. (2017) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx084 · Cited by 39 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, other studies also report no reliable link between self-esteem and systemic inflammation (Chiang et al., 2019; Kim and Thomas, 2019) or only a significant correlation under certain contexts (Elliot and Chapman, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-Protective yet Self-Defeating
Wood, J. V., & Forest, A. L. (2015) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.10.001 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Interpersonal goals as predictors of facebook use, social capital, and envy
Tobin, S. J., Chant, G., & Clay, R. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0446 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Marteinsdottir, I., Ernerudh, J., Jonasson, L., Kristenson, M., & Garvin, P. (2016) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-016-9553-z · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This is consistent with some recent work that found a negative association between a construct that includes self-esteem, psychological resources (e.g., optimism, mastery, self-esteem) and various inflammatory markers (e.g., Marteinsdottir et al., 2016; Stokes, 2020).”
ResultStokes, J. E. (2020) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaa026 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Midlife in the United States (MIDUS Refresher 1): Biomarker Project, 2012-2016
Weinstein, M., Ryff, C. D., & Seeman, T. E. (2017) · ICPSR - Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research · doi:10.3886/icpsr36901.v6
Midlife in the United States (MIDUS Refresher 1), 2011-2014
Ryff, C., Almeida, D. M., Ayanian, J. Z., Binkley, N., Carr, D. S., Coe, C., Davidson, R., Grzywacz, J., Karlamangla, A., Krueger, R., et al. (2016) · ICPSR - Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research · doi:10.3886/icpsr36532.v3
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 78 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cytokines as key players in obesity low grade inflammation and related complications
Uti, D. E., Atangwho, I. J., Omang, W. A., Alum, E. U., Obeten, U. N., Udeozor, P. A., Agada, S. A., Bawa, I., & Ogbu, C. O. (2025) · Obesity Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.obmed.2025.100585 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators
Lee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., & Way, B. M. (2022) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2021.0188 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“More recently, Lee and Way (2021) discovered that among older adults with low self-esteem, social media use predicted higher levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin (IL)-6—biomarkers of chronic inflammation.”
Self-citationSocial media use, psychological well-being and physical health during lockdown
Yue, Z., Lee, D. S., Xiao, J., & Zhang, R. (2021) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2021.2013917 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Similarly, physical health can be assessed by a range of indicators other than somatic symptoms (Lee et al., in press; Lee & Way, 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRelationships between Social Networking Sites Use and Self-Esteem: The Moderating Role of Gender
Ma, C. M. S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811462 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Gentzler, A. L., Hughes, J. L., Johnston, M., & Alderson, J. E. (2023) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12243 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Egorov, A. I., Griffin, S. M., Styles, J. N., Kobylanski, J., Klein, J., Wickersham, L. C., Ritter, R., Sams, E., Hudgens, E., & Wade, T. J. (2024) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123408 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
A multiscale inflammatory map: linking individual stress to societal dysfunction
Yoram Vodovotz, B., Arciero, J. C., Verschure, P. F. M. J., & Katz, D. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Science · doi:10.3389/fsci.2023.1239462 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Rosenthal, S. R., & Tobin, A. P. (2022) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2022.2139759 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Previous literature has identi fi ed self-esteem as a moderating factor between social media use and systemic in fl ammation, where a decrease in self-esteem strengthened this positive association (Lee and Way 2021).”
BackgroundOleas, D., & López-Barranco, G. (2024) · European Public & Social Innovation Review · doi:10.31637/epsir-2024-1042 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…media, identified by Andreassen et al. (2017), reflects the need to feed the ego and the intention to avoid negative self-evaluation; these components are a fundamental part of the constitution of self-esteem, which is relevant at the level of physical and psychological health (Lee & Way, 2021).”
Stacked ensemble model for analyzing mental health disorder from social media data
Agarwal, D., Singh, V. K., Singh, A. K., & Madan, P. (2023) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-023-17395-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“A variety of behavioral & personalized health data [12, 13] is made available by these technologies, as well as through everyday technology interactions between the individuals and also the information which accumulates in EHR.”
A Scoping Review of the Use and Determinants of Social Media Among College Students
Fatima, A., Akhter, M. S., Kanekar, A., Roy, S., Mitra, R., Imade, B., & Sharma, M. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13172234 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In light of the complex relationship between social media use and mental health, institutional policies should also advocate for monitored and balanced usage to improve overall student engagement and academic performance [66].”
Lee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., & Way, B. M. (2022) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2023.05.010 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., & Way, B. M. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/46309 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Relatedly, because social media effects are likely to vary at the individual level [3,48,51], future research may explore individual difference variables (eg, personality and loneliness) that may moderate our findings.”
BackgroundSelf-citationLi, R., Li, T., Xie, Y., Zhai, S., Qu, Y., Zhang, D., Zou, L., Yang, Y., Wu, X., Tao, F., et al. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s411043 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bresnick, S. D., Faasse, K., & McGuire, P. (2025) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery Global Open · doi:10.1097/gox.0000000000006735 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“16,17 A second pathway involves patients who are already at heightened risk for SSD or may have SSD preceding their surgery.”
Sari, A. H., Sugihartati, R., Wulan, N. L. N., et al. (2022) · Nyimak Journal of Communication · doi:10.31000/nyimak.v6i2.6430 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., et al. (2023) · doi:10.2196/preprints.46309
Self-citationKim, Y. (2024) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393241301045
“…factor that affects interpersonal relationships (Harris & Orth, 2020) as well as physical and psychological well-being (Bukhari et al., 2023; Lee & Way, 2021) and that has been closely discussed among scholars in relation to social media (Bukhari et al., 2023; Lee & Way, 2021; Saiphoo et…”
InfluentialGreen, M., Lee, D. S., & Raffloer, G. (2025) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.70107
Self-citationAltayyar, H., & Alatwi, H. E. (2026) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2026.2659785
Lopez, R. B., Moughan, E., KOUZNETSOV, S., Nephew, B. C., King, J. A., & Lee, D. S. (2026) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-026-00659-7
Self-citationHelvich, J., Novák, L., Jozefiaková, B., Milková, E., & Tavel, P. (2026) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2026-4-12
“Accordingly, evidence shows that among those with lower self-esteem, PSMU was associated with worse somatic health (Lee & Way, 2021; Wang et al., 2025).”
- Authors
- Lee, D. S., & Way, B. M.
- Affiliations
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, David S.
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-10
- Volume
- 16
- Pages
- 100300
- ISSN
- 2666-3546 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8474231
- OpenAlex
- W3185358662
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 4.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Keywords
- social media use, systemic inflammation, self-esteem, moderation, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, inflammatory markers, physical health, middle-aged adults, depressive symptoms
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