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An empirical examination comparing the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment approach and psychological skills training for the mental health and sport performance of female student athletes.

Gross, Mike, Moore, Zella E., Gardner, Frank L., Wolanin, Andrew T., Pess, Rachel, Marks, Donald R.·2018·International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

DOI 10.1080/1612197x.2016.1250802

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Abstract

The present study was a randomised controlled trial investigating the effectiveness of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach compared to traditional Psychological Skills Training (PST) for the mental health and sport performance of female collegiate athletes. Two hypotheses were proposed: (a) participants in the MAC group would demonstrate reduced behavioural issues, emotional distress, and psychological symptoms, and increased athletic performance when compared to those in the PST group; (b) MAC participants would exhibit reduced emotion dysregulation and increased psychological flexibility and dispositional mindfulness, compared to PST participants. Participants included 18 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III female student athletes who were randomly assigned into either the MAC or PST group based upon pre-intervention levels of distress; and were assessed pre-intervention, post-intervention, and at 1-month follow-up. A mixed-model ANOVA analysis revealed that the MAC effectively reduced Substance Use, Hostility, and Emotion Dysregulation over time when compared to the PST group. Several within-group differences also emerged, as MAC participants demonstrated reduced Generalised Anxiety, Eating Concerns, and Psychological Distress, as well as increased psychological flexibility from post-intervention to one-month follow-up. As per coach ratings, MAC participants also evidenced improved sport performance from pre-intervention to post-intervention. Results suggest that the MAC is an effective intervention for the mental health and sport performance needs of female collegiate athletes.

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Evers, A. G., Somogie, J., Wong, I. L., Allen, J. D., & Cuevas, A. G. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2019-0083 · Cited by 19
Effects of mindfulness-based programs on competitive anxiety in sports: A meta-analysis
Wang, X., Nasiruddin, N. J. B. M., Ji, S., Gao, X., Hassan, M. Z. B., Dong, D., & Samsudin, S. B. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-05648-8 · Cited by 18
“Currently, Mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) are increasingly popular and appear to be a more effective psychological approach for alleviating competitive anxiety in athletes and enhancing athletic performance (Gross et al., 2018; Hut et al., 2023).”
Exploring mindfulness interventions across cultures: a comparative meta-analysis of mindfulness interventions for athletes in Western and Eastern contexts
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The effect of mindfulness training on the psychological state of high-level athletes: Meta analysis and system evaluation research
Zhang, J., Sun, J., Zhou, Y., Gong, L., & Huang, S. (2025) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2025.2468997 · Cited by 26
“After excluding the study by (Gross et al., 2018), heterogeneity decreases, the effect size increases, and the intervention effect remains significant.”
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Using genetic algorithms to abbreviate the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport: A substantive-methodological synthesis
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Effects of Commitment on Fear of Failure and Burnout in Teen Spanish Handball Players
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“In fact, psychological programs for increasing mindfulness among athletes have been shown to reduce problems with emotional control to a greater extent than traditional support methods (Gross et al., 2016).”
Background
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Wang, Y., Tian, J., & Yang, Q. (2021) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2021/5596111 · Cited by 27
“In sports [12], mindfulness training can improve the athletes’ attention and their acceptance level of physical experience.”
Background
Mindfulness and Nonattachment-To-Self in Athletes: Can Letting Go Build Well-being and Self-actualization?
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Mindfulness and Self-Regulation Strategies Predict Performance of Romanian Handball Players
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“There are researches that separately investigate the influence of mindfulness [2,6,7] and self-regulation [8,9] on performance.”
Background
Data Mining in the Mixed Methods: Application to the Study of the Psychological Profiles of Athletes
Brincones, J. L. P., Reigal, R. E., Morales‐Sánchez, V., Morillo-Baro, J. P., de Mier, R. J.-R., Alves, J. M., & Hernández-Mendo, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02675 · Cited by 15
“The advancement of female in sports has increased the number of studies carried out on women, ﬁnding jobs related to physiology, technical skills, or the psychology of sport (Eys et al., 2015; Kozina et al., 2016; Gross et al., 2018).”
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Sports Injury Rehabilitation Intervention Algorithm Based on Visual Analysis Technology
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“This is consistent with previous research results (Hofmann et al., 2010; Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016; Gross et al., 2018).”
Result
Retracted
Eficacia de un programa de preparación psicológica en jugadores jóvenes de fútbol
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“In the field of sport psychology, the importance of mental training practices has dramatically increased and the focus on this subject are increasing day by day (Gross et al., 2018; Ong & Griva, 2017).”
Background
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“Awareness and acceptance are also common core elements in other intervention modalities, such as the mindfulness–acceptance-based approaches [18,19].”
Background
Effect of mindfulness-based intervention on endurance performance under pressure and performance-relevant mental attributes, an interdisciplinary perspective: Protocol for a Mindfulness-Based Peak Performance (MBPP) trial
Chang, Y., Gill, D. L., Creswell, J. D., Chen, D.-T., Lin, C., Chu, C., & Nien, J. (2023) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2023.107175 · Cited by 16
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“Moreover, collegiate student-athletes are challenged with adjustment to a new learning environment, managing new peer relationships, financial stress, and preparing for career development (Gross et al., 2018).”
Background
Eficacia de un programa de preparación psicológica en jugadores jóvenes de fútbol
Moreno-Fernández, I. M., Gómez-Espejo, V., Olmedilla-Caballero, B., Ramos-Pastrana, L. M., Ortega, E., & Zafra, A. O. (2019) · Revista de Psicología Aplicada al Deporte y el Ejercicio Físico · doi:10.5093/rpadef2019e13 · Cited by 9
“…años, resaltando la gran importancia que tiene la intervención psicológica en el deporte, proporcionando un mayor bienestar psicológico y un incremento del rendimiento deportivo (Breslin, Shannon, Haughey, Donnelly y Leavey, 2017; Brown y Fletcher, 2017; Golby y Wood, 2016; Gross et al., 2018).”
Background
A sport-specific ACT group intervention for promoting athletes’ mental well-being: a randomized controlled trial
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“MAC studies have shown to have positive effects on athletic performance in self-reported increase in concentration, mindful attention, awareness and in self-reported reduction in emotional avoidance (Gross et al., 2018; Josefsson et al., 2019; Sabzevari et al., 2023).”
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“…factores psicológicos en el rendimiento deportivo ha sido ampliamente estudiada (Abdullah et al., 2016; Álvarez et al., 2014; Carazo y Araya, 2010; Gross et al., 2018; Kristiansen et al., 2008; MacNamara et al., 2010; Olmedilla et al., 2017; Robles-Rodríguez et al., 2020), demostrándose que…”
Background
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“…such as increased well-being (Wersebe et al., 2018); increased social skills (Herbert et al., 2018); and performance enhancement across the domains of public speaking (Glassman et al., 2016), work (Bond & Bunce, 2003; Bond & Flaxman, 2006) and athletics (Gross et al., 2016; Josefsson et al., 2019).”
Enhancing Final-Year Medical Students’ Clinical Examinations Performance via a Transdiagnostic ACT-Based Intervention
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Effects of Mindfulness Intervention on Cognitive Function in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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“Regular participation in an MI also has substantial benefits for the mental health of athletes, primarily in the form of reduced behavioral problems, emotional distress, and psychological symptoms (Gross et al., 2018).”
Psychological skill training to enhance sports performance among undergraduate athletes in Kogi State
Ndakotsu, A. M., BEN, O. V., Ayodele, K. B., & OIZA, A. R. (2023) · International Journal of Physical Education Sports and Health · doi:10.22271/kheljournal.2023.v10.i5b.3073 · Cited by 7
Investigation of the Effect of Cognitive Control and Cognitive Flexibility Skills on Mental Well-Being in Athletes
Bedir, D. (2023) · Research in Sport Education and Sciences · doi:10.5152/jpess.2023.22063 · Cited by 7
A systematic review of the mindful sport performance enhancement program
Minkler, T. O., Oparina, E., & Kostrna, J. R. (2025) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2025.2521774 · Cited by 10
The application of deep learning in college students’ sports cognition and health concept
Wang, P., Chi, X., & Yu, Y. (2021) · Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems · doi:10.3233/jifs-219014 · Cited by 6
Mindfulness in the Sport Academy Classroom: Exploring Benefits and Barriers of a Low-Dose Intervention
Augustus, A. N., & Zizzi, S. J. (2022) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-022-00444-2 · Cited by 9
“MBIs may also enhance student–athlete mental health and well-being, by enhancing psychological flexibility and emotion regulation (Gross et al., 2018).”
BackgroundResult
Psychological training in sports
Ramesberger, R. (2022) · Quality in Sport · doi:10.12775/qs.2022.08.02.003 · Cited by 13
The roles of readiness and dosage in predicting outcomes of a mindful sport performance enhancement intervention with U.S. college student-athletes
Minkler, T. O., Zizzi, S. J., & Follmer, D. J. (2023) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102539 · Cited by 6
Living your best life: The mindful pursuit of student-athlete thriving
Augustus, A. N., Zizzi, S. J., Voelker, D. K., & Costalupes, B. (2023) · Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ajsep.2023.09.004 · Cited by 10
Effects of mindfulness on athletes' performance decrement
Amemiya, R., & Sakairi, Y. (2017) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.88.16225 · Cited by 6
“Arnkoff, 2009）が開発されており，それぞれの技法の効果が報告されている。例えばMACにおいては，介入によって競技成績や記録が向上した選手の事例や，プログラム実施前後でバレーボールやフィールドホッケー（Wolanin & Schwanhausser, 2010），バスケットボールのパフォーマンス得点が有意に上昇することが報告されている（Gross et al., 2016）。またMSPEでは，主要効果指標である実際のパフォーマンス成績（ゴルフの平均ホール数やアーチェリーの得点など）においては向上効果は認められなかったものの，パフォーマンス…”

Authors: Gross, M., Moore, Z. E., Gardner, F. L., Wolanin, A. T., Pess, R., & Marks, D. R.
Affiliations: Kean University (US)
Manhattan University (US)
Touro College (US)
Corresponding author: Gross, Mike
ORCID: Gardner, Frank L.
Marks, Donald R.
Venue: International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2016-11-03
Volume: 16
Issue: 4
Pages: 431-451
ISSN: 1557-251X (ISSN-L)
1612-197X
DOI: 10.1080/1612197x.2016.1250802
OpenAlex: W2547176344
Cited by: 213
References: 76
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1
FWCI: 16.54
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (publishedVersion)
Touro Scholar (Touro College) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
Keywords: mental training, female collegiate athletes, collegiate athletes, mental health, athletic performance, emotional dysregulation, psychological flexibility, trait mindfulness, psychological distress, generalized anxiety disorder, eating concerns, substance use, hostility, coach ratings

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An empirical examination comparing the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment approach and psychological skills training for the mental health and sport performance of female student athletes.

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