Cited by 413Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyAutism Spectrum Disorder Research

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Predicting Impairment in Major Life Activities and Occupational Functioning in Hyperactive Children as Adults: Self-Reported Executive Function (EF) Deficits Versus EF Tests

Barkley, Russell A., Fischer, Mariellen·2011·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1080/87565641.2010.549877

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Abstract

Hyperactivity in children, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), is associated with impairments in various major life activities by adulthood, particularly occupational functioning. ADHD appears to involve deficits in executive functioning (EF). Prior studies have not examined the contribution of these deficits to adult impairment generally and occupational adjustment specifically in longitudinal studies of hyperactive/ADHD children. We did so assessing EF by both self-report and tests and using self and other-rated impairment in 10 domains of major life activities and 12 measures of occupational impairment. We studied hyperactive (H; N = 135) and community control children (C; N = 75) followed to adulthood (mean age 27 years). The H cases were subdivided into those whose ADHD did (ADHD-P) and did not persist (ADHD-NP) using modified DSM-IV criteria. Self-reported EF deficits were more severe on all five EF scales in the ADHD-P than both the ADHD-NP and C groups and on three scales in the ADHD-NP compared to C groups. Most ADHD-P cases fell in the clinically impaired range on self-reported EF as did a substantial minority of ADHD-NP cases but few were so classified on the EF tests. Impairments in occupational functioning were predicted by the EF ratings to a greater degree than by the EF tests. Most EF tests were unrelated to work history with the exception of the Five-Points Test. We conclude that EF ratings are better predictors of impairment in major life act…

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Quick Delay Questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and relations to functional impairments in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Thorell, L. B., Sjöwall, D., Mies, G. W., & Scheres, A. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000421 · Cited by 17
“T hi s ar tic le is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. have higher ecological validity compared with those obtained from laboratory tasks (e.g., Barkley & Fischer, 2011).”
A novel unstructured performance-based task of executive function in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Ledochowski, J., Andrade, B. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2019) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2019.1567694 · Cited by 16
“…differences in EF have been found between individuals with ADHD and nonclinical controls using both performance-based measures and rating scales (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Biederman et al., 2007; Mahone et al., 2002; Mahone & Hoffman, 2007; Toplak, Jain, & Tannock, 2005;…”
Childhood Executive Functioning Predicts Young Adult Outcomes in22q11.2Deletion Syndrome
Albert, A. B., Abu-Ramadan, T. M., Kates, W. R., Fremont, W. P., & Antshel, K. M. (2018) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617718000784 · Cited by 16
“This is consistent with findings from Barkley and Fischer (2011), who reported that EF ratings are better predictors of adult outcomes than EF tests, because these tests may not be capturing the same complexity of EF required in real-world situations.”
BackgroundResult
Elevated symptoms of executive dysfunction predict lower adaptive functioning in 3‐year‐olds with autism spectrum disorder
Powell, K. K., Macari, S. L., Brennan‐Wydra, E., Feiner, H., Butler, M., Fortes, D., Boxberger, A., Torres‐Viso, M., Morgan, C., Lyons, M., et al. (2022) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2715 · Cited by 25
“Furthermore, unlike questionnaire-based EF, task-based EF performance is inconsistently or modestly related to functional outcomes (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2011; Denckla, 1996) and is related to general cognitive ability in both adults (Barkley & Murphy, 2011) and children…”
Method
Long-term safety and tolerability of atomoxetine in Japanese adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Hirata, Y., Goto, T., Takita, Y., Trzepacz, P. T., Allen, A. J., Ichikawa, H., & Takahashi, M. (2013) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/appy.12119 · Cited by 17
“, 2005), resulting in functional, occupational, and psychosocial impairment (Barkley and Fischer, 2011).”
Background
Adult ADHD: Influence of Physical Activation, Stimulation, and Reward on Cognitive Performance and Symptoms
Kallweit, C., Paucke, M., Strauß, M., & Exner, C. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054719845050 · Cited by 16
Caregiver ratings of executive functions among foster children in middle childhood: Associations with early adversity and school adjustment
Carrera, P., Jiménez‐Morago, J. M., Román, M., & Manso, E. L. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104495 · Cited by 22
RETRACTED: Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, Internalizing Symptoms, and Executive Function in Adults With ADHD
Leikauf, J. E., & Solanto, M. V. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716659361 · Cited by 15
“This relationship is not found when using neuropsychological tests of EF, which may reflect the lesser ecological validity of EF tests compared with EF rating scales in both children (Isquith, Roth, & Gioia, 2013) and adults (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010).”
Method
Retracted
First things first: Family activities and routines, time management and attention
Malatras, J. W., Israel, A. C., Sokolowski, K. L., & Ryan, J. (2016) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2016.09.006 · Cited by 15
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Prisoners: Increased Substance Use Disorder Severity and Psychiatric Comorbidity
Vélez‐Pastrana, M. C., González, R. A., Ramos-Fernández, A., Padilla, R. R. R., LEVIN, F. R., & Albizu‐García, C. E. (2020) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000508829 · Cited by 16
Emotion dysregulation in adult ADHD: Introducing the Comprehensive Emotion Regulation Inventory (CERI)
Thorell, L. B., Tilling, H., & Sjöwall, D. (2020) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2020.1800595 · Cited by 22
Detecting Differences in Activities of Daily Living Between Children With and Without Mild Disabilities
Gantschnig, B. E., Page, J., Nilsson, I., & Fisher, A. G. (2013) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2013.007013 · Cited by 15
“Children with mild disabilities also have in common that their primary symptoms signiﬁcantly interfere with activity of daily living (ADL) task performance (APA, 2000; Barkley & Fischer, 2011).”
Attention–memory training yields behavioral and academic improvements in children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder comorbid with a learning disorder
de Farias, A. C., Cordeiro, M. L., Felden, É. P. G., Bara, T. D. S., Benko, C. R., Coutinho, D., Martins, L. F., Chimaleski, R. T., & McCracken, J. T. (2017) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s136663 · Cited by 19
“Untreated ADHD can be associated with unfavorable corollaries, such as truancy, low educational attainment, unemployment, accidents resulting in disability or premature death, and the development of neuropsychiatric comorbidities, such as conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and substance abuse disorder.…”
Background
ADHD and subthreshold symptoms in childhood and life outcomes at 40 years in a prospective birth-risk cohort
Schiavone, N., Virta, M., Leppämäki, S., Launes, J., Vanninen, R. L., Tuulio‐Henriksson, A., Immonen, S., Järvinen, I., Lehto, E., Michelsson, K., et al. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112574 · Cited by 19
Análisis de las consecuencias cognitivas y afectivas de la violencia de género en relación con el tipo de maltrato
Navarro, C., León, F. G., & Nieto, M. Á. P. (2020) · Ansiedad y Estrés · doi:10.1016/j.anyes.2020.01.003 · Cited by 31
Organizational skills training for children with ADHD: study protocol for a randomized, controlled trial
Bikic, A., Dalsgaard, S., Olsen, K. D., & Sukhodolsky, D. G. (2021) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05499-9 · Cited by 14
ADHD risk genes involved in dopamine signaling and metabolism are associated with reduced estimated life expectancy at young adult follow‐up in hyperactive and control children
Barkley, R. A., Smith, K. M., & Fischer, M. (2019) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32711 · Cited by 18
“A factor analysis in that earlier research showed it to reflect five EF components, these being time management, organization and problem solving, self-motivation, self-activation, and behavioral inhibition (Barkley & Fischer, 2011).”
MethodSelf-citation
Examining the Factor Structure and Incremental Validity of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale – Short Form in a Community Sample
Clauss, K. E., Witte, T. K., & Bardeen, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2021.1887879 · Cited by 14
“…relationships between self-reported EF and related outcomes (e.g., occupational impairment, behavioral problems, depressive symptoms, and persistent ADHD symptoms) than between self-reported EF and performance measures of EF (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Knouse et al., 2013).”
Background
Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in children and adolescents with ADHD: a systematic review of controlled longitudinal cohort studies.
Dessain, A., Parlatini, V., Singh, A., Bruin, M. D., Cortese, S., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Serrano, J. (2023) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105502 · Cited by 13
“Young people with ADHD may be less resilient and particularly affected by changes of routine and/ or unpredictable schedules (Barkley and Fischer, 2011).”
Background
The role of executive functioning on the intention-behaviour relationship of health behaviours: a temporal self-regulatory perspective
Frye, W. S., & Shapiro, S. K. (2020) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2020.1767778 · Cited by 14
Time Reproduction Deficits at Young Adult Follow-Up in Childhood ADHD: The Role of Persistence of Disorder and Executive Functioning
Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2018) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2018.1541992 · Cited by 14
“More information on this interview can be found in other research from this study (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley et al., 2008; pp. 195–199).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Preliminary Psychometrics for the Executive Function Challenge Task: A Novel, “Hot” Flexibility, and Planning Task for Youth
Kenworthy, L., Freeman, A., Ratto, A., Dudley, K., Powell, K. K., Pugliese, C. E., Strang, J. F., Verbalis, A., & Anthony, L. G. (2020) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561772000017x · Cited by 14
Osmotic Release Oral System-Methylphenidate Hydrochloride (OROS-MPH) versus atomoxetine on executive function improvement and clinical effectiveness in ADHD: A randomized controlled trial
Torun, Y. T., Taner, Y. I., Güney, E., & İşeri, E. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1796667 · Cited by 14
“Brown (2006) and Barkley & Fischer (2011), suggested that a behavioral rating scale might be a more sensitive indicator (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Brown, 2006).”
Background
Effect of Malaria and Malaria Chemoprevention Regimens in Pregnancy and Childhood on Neurodevelopmental and Behavioral Outcomes in Children at 12, 24, and 36 Months: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Bangirana, P., Conroy, A. L., Opoka, R. O., Semrud‐Clikeman, M., Jang, J. H., Apayi, C., Kakuru, A., Muhindo, M. K., Georgieff, M., Dorsey, G., et al. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac815 · Cited by 14
Symptom profiles and executive function in childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder
Hybel, K. A., Mortensen, E. L., Højgaard, D. R. M. A., Lambek, R., & Thomsen, P. H. (2017) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.05.003 · Cited by 16
The role of ECEC teachers for the long-term social and academic adjustment of children with early externalizing difficulties: a prospective cohort study
Baardstu, S., Wang, M. V., & Brandlistuen, R. E. (2021) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2021.1981961 · Cited by 16
“…that third factors that exist within the child, such as language problems (Zadeh, Im-Bolter, and Cohen 2007) or executive functioning deficits (Barkley and Fischer 2011), may precede problems in different developmental domains, including externalizing problems and social and academic…”
Background
Improved Executive Function in Adults Diagnosed With Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder as Measured by the Brown Attention-Deficit Disorder Scale Following Treatment With SHP465 Mixed Amphetamine Salts Extended-Release: Post Hoc Analyses From 2 Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Studies
Brown, T. E., Chen, J., & Robertson, B. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720961819 · Cited by 15
Impact of executive function on efficacy obtaining resources following intimate partner violence
Lee, M. S., & DePrince, A. P. (2017) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21887 · Cited by 18
“Results of the current study are supported by literature connecting EF with successfully executing important life activities (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Masten et al., 2012; McGurk & Mueser, 2003).”
Background
A systematic review of play-based interventions for students with ADHD: implications for school-based occupational therapists
Cornell, H., Lin, T. T., & Anderson, J. A. (2018) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2018.1432446 · Cited by 13
The Effects of a Brief Organization, Time Management, and Planning Intervention for At-Risk College Freshmen
Stevens, A. E., Hartung, C. M., Shelton, C. R., LaCount, P. A., & Heaney, A. (2018) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2018.1551093 · Cited by 19
“Executive functions (EF; working memory, attentional shifting, selfmonitoring, planning ahead, task persistence, organization; Barkley, 1997; Barkley & Fischer, 2011) aid us in regulating behavior to meet a desired outcome.”
Background
Selbstkontrolle in der Schule: Der Zusammenhang von geringer Selbstkontrolle und schlechten Schulleistungen bei Kindern mit ADHS
Wirth, A., Reinelt, T., Gawrilow, C., & Rauch, W. A. (2015) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000114 · Cited by 14
“Tests zur Messung von EF erfassen im Unterschied zur Selbstkontrollkapazität zeitlich nur sehr kurz andauernde Leistungen (vgl. Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Rauch, Gold & Schmitt, 2012; Toplak, West & Stanovich, 2013).”
Background
Do ADHD Symptoms, Executive Function, and Study Strategies Predict Temporal Reward Discounting in College Students with Varying Levels of ADHD Symptoms? A Pilot Study
Scheres, A., & Solanto, M. V. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11020181 · Cited by 15
Automatic and controlled processing and the Broad Autism Phenotype
Camodeca, A., & Voelker, S. L. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.11.012 · Cited by 12
“sylvania State University, 100 helping understand the cognitive weaknesses observed in those with an autism spectrum diagnosis (Kenworthy et al., 2009, 2013; Barkley and Fischer, 2011; Culbertson et al., 2013; Panerai et al., 2014; Pugliese et al., 2015).”
Background
Persisting Psychosocial Impairments in Adults Being Treated with Medication for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Brown, T. E., Flood, E. M., Sarocco, P. W., Atkins, N., & Khachatryan, A. (2025) · Psychopharmacology Bulletin · doi:10.64719/pb.4557 · Cited by 13
The importance of executive functioning for social skills in college students: a relative weights analysis
Hilton, D. C., Canu, W. H., & Jarrett, M. A. (2022) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2109038 · Cited by 18
“…concerns for the shortcomings of self-reports, recent research suggests that these measures are more capable of measuring functional impairments than task-based measures; 27 however, future research may benefit from the inclusion of both task-and report-based measures of EF and social ability.”
Discrimination of ADHD and reading disability in adults using the D-KEFS
Stern, S. K., & Morris, M. K. (2013) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acs111 · Cited by 11
Functional impairment in ADHD
Weiss, M. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139035491.005 · Cited by 13
Time estimation exposure modifies cognitive aspects and cortical activity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults
Fontes, R. M., Marinho, V., Carvalho, V., Rocha, K. D. M., Magalhães, F. E. X., Moura, I., Ribeiro, P. F. M., Velasques, B., Cagy, M., Gupta, D. S., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207454.2020.1715394 · Cited by 11
“The impulsivity domain was also composed of 23 related items, more precisely a deficit in the inhibitory system, as described by Barkley and Fisher [52].”
Method
Effects of school-based physical activity programs on executive function development in children: a systematic review
del Castillo, J. G., & Alcocer, I. B. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1658101 · Cited by 25
Executive Functioning and Activity in Children: a Multimethod Examination of Working Memory, Inhibition, and Hyperactivity
Smith, J. N., Raiker, J. S., Fosco, W. D., Jusko, M. L., Campez, M., Little, K., Mattfeld, A. T., Espinal, K., Sánchez, G. G., Merrill, B. M., et al. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00665-0 · Cited by 11
Measuring entrepreneurship in adolescents at school: New psychometric evidence on the BEPE-A
Sierra, J. O., Ibort, E. G., López, A. C., & Torres, J. M. D. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250237 · Cited by 17
“[50] may be the explanation for a higher tolerance to stress and frustration in older adolescents.”
Background
Updated profiles of everyday executive function in youth with Down syndrome using the BRIEF‐2
Csumitta, K. D., Stephan, C., LaQuaglia, R. I., Miller, E. E., & Lee, N.-H. (2021) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12879 · Cited by 13

Authors: Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M.
Affiliations: Medical University of South Carolina (US)
Medical College of Wisconsin (US)
Corresponding author: Barkley, Russell A.
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2011-01-31
Volume: 36
Issue: 2
Pages: 137-161
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2010.549877
OpenAlex: W2116091704
Cited by: 413
References: 45
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 18.60
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH042181, MH42181)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, executive dysfunction, major life activities, occupational functioning, hyperactive children, longitudinal follow-up, work history
MeSH terms: Activities of Daily Living, Adult, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Interview, Psychological, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Occupations, Predictive Value of Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Severity of Illness Index, Statistics as Topic, Executive Function, Self Report

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Predicting Impairment in Major Life Activities and Occupational Functioning in Hyperactive Children as Adults: Self-Reported Executive Function (EF) Deficits Versus EF Tests

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