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Ole Taeao Afua, the New Morning: A Qualitative Investigation Into Samoan Perspectives on Mental Health and Culturally Appropriate Services
Abstract
Objectives The first objective was to develop a culturally appropriate research method to investigate Samoan perspectives on mental health issues. The second objective was to apply this to identify cultural values and understandings important in the care and treatment of Samoan people with mental health problems. Method Gender-specific focus groups consisting of Samoan elders and service providers were facilitated by Samoan researchers in the Samoan language. Systematic analysis of the transcripts, adapted to the cultural context, were conducted in Samoan and later translated into English. Results A culturally derived method, referred to as Fa'afaletui, reflecting Samoan communal values and familiar institutional structures within the community, allowed each focus group to come to a consensual view on issues discussed. The Samoan self was identified as an essential concept for understanding Samoan views of mental health. This self was described as a relational self and mental wellness as a state of relational harmony, where personal elements of spiritual, mental and physical are in balance. Mental ill health was sometimes linked to breaches of forbidden and sacred relationships, which could be addressed effectively only within protocols laid down in the culture. Additional stressors contributing to mental ill-health were identified as low income, unemployment, rising housing costs and the marginalization of Samoan cultural norms in New Zealand. Participants identified the nee…
Overview
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TL;DR
This qualitative study developed *Fa'afaletui*, a Samoan culturally grounded focus-group method, and used it to investigate Samoan perspectives on mental health and culturally appropriate services. Participants described a relational, holistic Samoan self and called for culturally based services integrating family, spirituality, and traditional healing alongside Western care.
Key findings
- The *Fa'afaletui* method used gender- and status-specific focus groups (“houses”/*fale*) that built consensus through weaving knowledge across groups; 14 focus group meetings took place: four for each Elder group and three for each service provider group. Participants numbered 12 Elder men, 12 Elder women, 10 male service providers, and 8 female service providers.
- The Samoan self was described as relational, not individual: it has meaning only in relationship with others and cannot be separated from the *va* (relational space) with parents, siblings, grandparents, extended family, and community. Mental wellness was described as relational harmony, with spiritual, mental, and physical elements in balance.
- Mental ill health was often understood as resulting from breaches of forbidden or sacred relationships (*tapu* and *sa*), sometimes involving curses (*malaaumatua*) that could be intergenerational. Additional stressors identified included low income, unemployment, rising housing costs, inability to meet family/church/remittance obligations, cultural identity conflicts, racial stereotypes and prejudices, and marginalization of Samoan cultural norms in New Zealand.
- Participants identified the need for a culturally based Samoan mental health service involving extended family, community-based care, Samoan staff, and traditional healers (*taulasea*/*fofo Samoa*) alongside clinicians; they also emphasized spirituality, language, culturally extended confidentiality, medical scholarships, and Samoan-led research.
Methods
- Qualitative focus group study. Participants were of Samoan descent living in urban areas of the lower North Island of New Zealand, selected by *Tumua ma Pule* to represent as many villages of origin as possible and balance participants from Savai’i and Upolu. Elder groups had a minimum age of 50 years; service provider groups represented a range of mental health disciplines.
- Gender-specific and relative-status-specific groups were facilitated by Samoan researchers in the Samoan language, with Samoan protocols observed. Informed consent was obtained after personal approaches by Samoan research team members and written material.
- Analysis was conducted in Samoan after researchers found important concepts difficult to translate precisely into English. Data were coded and categorized manually into recurring themes; the primary report was completed in Samoan and checked by authoritative participants, then an English report was prepared.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: all participants were resident in the greater Wellington region of New Zealand, so some findings could be subject to regional differences; findings cannot be generalized to other Pacific Island communities.
- Evident from the paper: the sample consisted of Samoan elders and service providers, not mental health consumers; the paper notes that a current development of the study involves a similar enquiry into Samoan consumers’ perspectives.
- Stated in the paper: further research is required to establish whether themes are common with other Pacific Island groups and to test the validity of the *Fa’afaletui* method more broadly.
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97 Own result · 24 Sources not found · 15 Own interpretation · 15 No basis given · 10 Own method · 2 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“Mental ill-health among Samoan people was reported as often understood to be the result of breaches of forbidden or sacred relationships (or breaches of 'sa' and 'tapu').”
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In the paper
“Such breaches were viewed as grave transgressions of family, village or district relational boundaries.”
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In the paper
“The Samoan self was described as drawing its sense of worth from its ability to carry out its appropriate roles and responsibilities.”
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In the paper
“There are cultural processes that facilitate healing after breaches of 'tapu and sa'.”
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In the paper
“In the context of psychiatric services, it was pointed out that individuals who receive treatment without regard for their communities and communal practices were denied a most important source of meaning and life support in their process of healing.”
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In the paper
“The Samoan self was described as having meaning only in relationship with other people, not as an individual.”
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In the paper
“Participants identified the need for a culturally based mental health service for Samoan people to address key cultural factors.”
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In the paper
“Participants considered that it was not possible to understand Samoan concepts of mental health and ill health without first understanding the Samoan concept of self.”
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In the paper
“They could often result in a curse (malaaumatua) being placed on the offending person or persons.”
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In the paper
“Participants described spiritual and mental aspects as being so closely related for Samoan people that psychiatric treatment processes that did not address the spiritual aspect were considered unlikely to be successful.”
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In the paper
“It was noted that although young people brought up in New Zealand were less influenced by these concepts they were still relevant when the young person faced a crisis in their life.”
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In the paper
“Fa'afaletui is a Samoan concept, that was brought to the notice of the researchers by the Elder men and women's focus group participants, to explain the process in which they viewed themselves to be a part.”
- Also stated in: § Fa'afaletui method · p. 3 · plain
“Essentially, fa'afaletui describes a method which facilitates the gathering and validation of important knowledge within the culture.”
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- Also stated in: § Fa'afaletui method · p. 3 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fa'afaletui is the critical process of weaving (tui) together all the different expressions of knowledge from within various groupings.”
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In the paper
“the Samoan researchers became concerned that important concepts discussed in the Samoan language were difficult to translate precisely, resulting in the loss of the essence of some of the information.”
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In the paper
“The Samoan way of healing is for the family to establish why there has been a curse put on this person and to seek reconciliation through appropriate processes.”
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In the paper
“In the Samoan context, this relationship is viewed as especially sacred”
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In the paper
“There were 12 participants in each of the Elder men and women's groups and ten and eight members for the men and women's service provider groups, respectively.”
plainn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These quotations were typical of the comments of all the groups and emphasize the fundamental importance of language, Samoan etiquette and protocol in protecting the sacred nature of relationships, and maintaining wellbeing in Samoan society.”
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In the paper
“digital theming techniques proved inadequate.”
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In the paper
“The themes consisted of clusters of the subject areas that consistently recurred.”
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In the paper
“These quotations were typical of the comments of all the groups and emphasize the fundamental importance of language, Samoan etiquette and protocol in protecting the sacred nature of relationships, and maintaining wellbeing in Samoan society.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As part of this feagaiga (covenant) a sister has the power to curse a brother whose conduct is extremely untoward or neglectful of her.”
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In the paper
“it is the role and responsibility of a brother to ensure the safety and welfare of his sister or sisters.”
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In the paper
“These cultural notions were clearly viewed as being effectively addressed only within the protocols laid down in the culture.”
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In the paper
“If a person has been cursed, it is because something has been dealt with irreverently or desecrated.”
- Also stated in: § Breaches of tapu and sa · p. 5 · plain
“In other words he or she has been assigned the consequences of desecrating sacred protocols.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Breaches of tapu and sa · p. 5 · plain
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In the paper
“In Samoan culture, Gods were traditionally embodied in the environment in which people lived and genealogical ties could always be traced back to a God.”
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In the paper
“much of the data was given in metaphorical and allusive language, as is common in serious Samoan discourse”
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In the paper
“Curses could be intergenerational.”
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In the paper
“. . . there will be Samoan people who will work there with commitment because they will look after their own people as if they were their mothers or fathers . . .”
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In the paper
“Within this service, the participants stated that there should be people trained to provide support and counselling for families of the mentally unwell:”
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In the paper
“There are different values and priorities between Samoan culture and the dominant culture, and these values conflict.”
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In the paper
“Traditional Samoan medicine and healing knowledge should be valued in the treatment of Samoan people . . .”
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In the paper
“There needs to be education of Samoan psychiatrists and Samoan cultural consultants . . .”
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In the paper
“. . . we need a mental health service to cater for the needs of Samoan people run by Samoan people . . .”
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In the paper
“(Young people) . . . don 't know if they are Palagi (European) or Samoan, they're confused.”
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In the paper
“They highlighted the important role of Samoan relational arrangements in the healing process and the critical role of the family in nurturing them. The importance of involving the extended family in treatment was emphasized.”
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In the paper
“. . . Samoan people are best employed because they understand the needs of Samoan people . . .”
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In the paper
“Samoans are being diagnosed by people from other cultures who define normality from their own perspective.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It was stated that where the cause of the unwellness originated from breaches of Tapu and Sa, and where this had a history of being intergenerational, then Western treatment was not effective:”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They pointed out that the family, which provides most of the support and has its own recognized boundaries can be marginalized through current institutional processes and legal requirements for confidentiality and privacy.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“References were made to established Maori mental health services in New Zealand which provide culturally appropriate care for Maori patients:”
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In the paper
“The needs from Samoa become a pressure . . . it becomes difficult for young people to provide (financially) for the family, church obligations, to send remittances (home to Samoa) . . . these become heavy burdens, the mind tries to cope, then it breaks down.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Participants raised deeply spiritual material during the course of the research and clearly expected that this would be treated as sacred by the researchers.”
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In the paper
“Participants reported that psychiatric treatment of Samoan people in New Zealand was based on Western medical beliefs. This primarily focused on physical modes of treatment:”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There was also acknowledgement of the emerging role of Pacific people who were employed as cultural advisors in mainstream mental health services. This was seen as a significant first step in bridging identified cultural gaps.”
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In the paper
“Therapy and counseling that connects people to their places and gives a sense of belonging should be made available.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“. . . early recognition of symptoms and causes, changes in behaviour and intervention at an early stage would increase the likelihood of recovery”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants emphasized the need for community based services:”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants noted different cultural conceptions of confidentiality, and considered that clients of a Samoan service should be able to choose to have their rights to confidential information extended to their families, rather than restricted to individual rights.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“taulasea (Samoan healers) should be recognized because there are illnesses which can only be treated by fofo Samoa (Samoan healing methods); there are also illnesses which can only be treated by Western medicine . . .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants recommended that medical scholarships be made available for Samoan students to enable a greater proportion to complete medical training and proceed with specialist training in psychiatry.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also stated that there was a need for Samoan researchers to undertake qualitative and quantitative research that relates to Samoan people and that this research should be more accessible to Samoan people.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One of the biggest reasons especially for the younger generations is the different cultures and trying to live in the European way . . . as well as keeping your identity as a Samoan and playing your role in the family. You've got two (areas) putting a lot of pressure on you to function out in the community and function in here.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Language and a lack of familiarity with important cultural issues, were identified as problems with the current mental health services:”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“. . . there should be a hospital service for Samoan people where they can be taken care of”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They wished to see the status of traditional healers recognized along with appropriate remuneration.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hospital facilities also helped to relieve the burden of care faced by some families, enabling other family members to seek paid employment:”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“. . . there need to be family and community education programmes; families need to be supported where needed in therapy and counseling, financial (budgeting) . . .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“. . . medication and injections cannot treat this type of illness; it can be healed through appropriate traditional healing.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are no Samoan psychiatrists.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants in this study called for similar Samoan or Pacific Island services to specifically address these issues for Samoan patients and their families.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this study a range of recommendations of how to do that were put forward by participants. These involved the provision of services that incorporate the beliefs and customs of Samoan people, the use of traditional healers alongside mental health clinicians, and closer links in the healing process with extended families, the churches and the communities in which Samoan people”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular the Western notions of the self as being primarily individuated rather than relational, and secular/scientific rather than spiritual, differ substantially from those identified by participants in this study.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Racial stereotypes and prejudices from the mainstream cultural groups contributed further tensions along with the cultural adjustments many immigrant families were undergoing.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Kleinman has emphasized the importance of research approaches which examine data using analysis derived from concepts indigenous to the culture in question.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“a person's first language houses their sense of belonging and identity and best explains their world view [1].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] 1. Tamasese K, Peteru C, Waldegrave C. Ole Taeao Afua: a qualitative investigation into Samoan perspectives on mental health and culturally appropriate services. Report for the Health Research Council of New Zealand. Wellington: The Family Centre, 1997.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The relative status separation allowed recognition of the roles and responsibilities of elders on the one hand and their particular knowledge of traditional 'health models' prior to the Western public health system in Samoa, on the other.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender separation allowed relationships and the appropriate cultural protocols to be addressed and permitted issues considered tapu (or sacred and forbidden) which could not be spoken of across gender groups, to be openly discussed.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“From a Western perspective, postmodern critical theory offers a rationale for this approach to mainstream theorists and practitioners, because it identifies differing constructions of meaning and power differences between them [10].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [10]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and is methodologically rigorous.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such an approach may be relevant for other Pacific Island cultures and other cultures, which have a strong emphasis on collectivity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It avoided the danger of Western interpretation and meaning construction and enabled an authentic Samoan based approach.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The information was threaded and rethreaded among the relational houses until all were agreed that the specific knowledge pieces were valid and authentically reflected the collective experience of the participants.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Audiotapes of the focus group sessions were transcribed and proofread to ensure accuracy.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specialized terms and vernacular usage were verified.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Copies of this report were given to authoritative participant members from each of the groups to check for coherency, appropriate use of terms and concepts, and an appropriate observance of written protocols and etiquette.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“encourages the exploration of meaning”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [11]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is particularly the case in the mental health context when addressing the meaning people from different cultures create to describe their experience and understanding.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“In recent years there has been an increasing recognition of the value of qualitative studies in healthcare research [9].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accounting for these factors is necessary in order to develop appropriate and effective research methods for the Samoan context.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Other collective views of self have been described for a range of diverse non-Western cultures [12-15].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [13]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [14]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“These authors state that it cannot be assumed that developmental theories, therapeutic interventions and mental health service practices that have evolved in cultures with individual concepts of self, will necessarily be relevant for people from collective based cultures.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [13]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [14]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, the Samoan leadership of the project, and focus group facilitation by Samoan researchers in the Samoan language were further factors in the cultural acceptability and validity of the method.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During this research there was an extraordinarily high level of cooperation by the participants, and the breadth and depth of knowledge that was shared, suggested a high degree of acceptance of the research process.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition although similarities in cultural values have been described between different Pacific Island cultures, it is not possible to generalize these findings to other Pacific Island communities.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Other authors have highlighted aspects of the phenomenology of major mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia arguing that differences in presenting symptoms across western and non-western cultures may be accounted for by fundamental differences between individual and collective concepts of self [4-6].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4] 4. Kleinman A. Anthropology and Psychiatry - the role of culture in cross-cultural research on illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 151:447-454.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [5] 5. Marsella AJ. Culture Self and Mental Disorder. Chapter 9. In: Marsella AJ, DeVos G, Hsu FLK, eds. Culture and self: Asian and Western perspectives . New York: Tavistock, 1985.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [6]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and some findings could be subject to regional differences, for example varying experiences of mental health services.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In a similar way, understanding cultural identity in the Pacific Island context is the key to beginning to address the mental health needs of Pacific Island communities.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [19]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of this study challenge a number of prevalent presuppositions about the nature of self in modern psychiatry and raise questions about the assumption that such dominant western views of self are applicable across cultures.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the New Zealand context, specialist Kaupapa Maori mental health services have been established, which have developed whanau (family) centred practices to address collective values in Maori culture [16].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [16]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In order for a mental health service to adequately address relational, spiritual and holistic aspects of the Samoan self, they would need to transform current approaches to mental healthcare.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper relies on this without support.
Research focusing on the mental health of Pacific people has been limited.
“To date, research focusing on the mental health of this population has been limited.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No previous systematic and rigorous research has established what would constitute acceptable mental health services for Samoan or other Pacific Island people.
“there has been no previous systematic and rigorous research to establish what would constitute acceptable mental health services for Samoan or other Pacific Island people.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cultural information of this type seldom features in formal mental health literature.
“Cultural information of this type seldom features in formal mental health literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Tumua ma Pule is the traditional oratorial body that is representative of all villages in Samoa.
“Tumua ma Pule , the traditional oratorial body that is representative of all villages in Samoa, selected participants from as many villages of origin as possible”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the Samoan context, issues of health and wellbeing without regard for a Samoan view of the self have little meaning.
“in the Samoan context, issues of health and wellbeing without regard for a Samoan view of the self, have little meaning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In order to discuss what might constitute a mentally well self, participants would need to address the more fundamental issue of a Samoan perspective on the self.
“In order to discuss what might constitute a mentally well self, participants would need to address the more fundamental issue of a Samoan perspective on the self.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few if any studies have attempted to systematically investigate the views of members of cultures indigenous to the South Pacific region.
“Despite recent acknowledgement of the specific mental health issues facing people from cultures indigenous to the South Pacific region, few if any studies have attempted to systematically investigate the views of members of these cultures.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Western notions of the self are primarily individuated rather than relational, and secular/scientific rather than spiritual.
“In particular the Western notions of the self as being primarily individuated rather than relational, and secular/scientific rather than spiritual, differ substantially from those identified by participants in this study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Samoan families as a whole tend to occupy a lower socio-economic status than the majority of New Zealanders.
“Samoan families as a whole tend to occupy a lower socio-economic status than the majority of New Zealanders”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is little epidemiological data available regarding the mental health status of Pacific Island people either in New Zealand or in their countries of origin.
“There is little epidemiological data available regarding the mental health status of Pacific Island people either in New Zealand or in their countries of origin.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Talanoa is widely adopted across Oceania as a Pacific-Indigenous research method, and fa ' afaletui is increasingly engaged as a method utilised in research with transnational Samoan communities.”
From Decolonising Qualitative Analysis: Collectively Weaving Understanding Using Talanoa and Fa'afaletui Pacific-Indigenous Research Methods (2024) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Tamasese et al. (2005), the first to publish about fa ' afaletui as a research methodology, utilised fa ' afaletui in a study of Samoan perspectives of mental health.”
From Decolonising Qualitative Analysis: Collectively Weaving Understanding Using Talanoa and Fa'afaletui Pacific-Indigenous Research Methods (2024) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In their process, fa ' afaletui was used to engage groups of elder men, elder women, young men and younger women as separate groups first. Following dialogue within these groups, the groups shared their perspectives and insights with each other.”
From Decolonising Qualitative Analysis: Collectively Weaving Understanding Using Talanoa and Fa'afaletui Pacific-Indigenous Research Methods (2024) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“They elaborate that the faafaletui is 'a methodology of weaving together knowledge from within the houses of relational arrangements', that is, 'weaving (tui) together all the different levels of knowledge frames from within the”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The faafaletui research methodology, on the other hand, was introduced as already mentioned to academic researchers by the Pacific research team of the Wellington Family Centre in New Zealand, led by Samoan family therapist and researcher Taimalieutu Kiwi Tamasese (Tamasese et al., 1997(Tamasese et al., , 2005)).”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similarly, while the concept faafaletui has been around in Samoan discourse for some time, it was not until Taimalieutu and her team developed it into a formal research methodology and published it in various places (most notably in the Australian New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry) that it took on a meaning that went beyond its usual or traditional confines”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“That is, in actually saying to ourselves that they were 'talanoa' or 'faafaletui' sessions, we seemed to be able to better keep on top of our minds the Pacific values explained by Vaioleti (2006) and Tamasese et al. (2005) to be central to them; we thought of our Polynesian/Samoan codes of respect, the need for turn sharing when speaking, the need for symbolic gestures of reciprocity and gratitude”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Meanwhile, Pacific worldviews locate wellbeing within relational harmony, where distress is often expected to be managed collectively through existing connections within family, church, or community contexts [20,21,22].”
From Voices of the Pacific: Pacific Peoples’ Conceptualisations of Anxiety in Aotearoa New Zealand—Findings from a Cross-Sectional Survey (2026) · cites this paper as [20]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They note that it is a Samoan concept that was brought to their notice by Samoan participants in their research 'to explain the process in which they viewed themselves to be a part' (Tamasese et al., 2005).”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Faafaletui is described by Tamasese et al. (2005) as 'a method which facilitates the gathering and validation of important knowledge within the culture' (p.302).”
From Decolonising Pacific research, building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa (2014) · cites this paper as Tamasese et al., 2005
Citations
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- Ministry of Health, 1997, Making a Pacific difference: strategic initiatives for the health of Pacific people in New Zealand
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gender Minority Stress: A Critical Review
Tan, K. K. H., Treharne, G. J., Ellis, S. J., Schmidt, J. M., & Veale, J. F. (2019) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2019.1591789 · Cited by 458
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Talanoaas empathic apprenticeship
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Suaalii‐Sauni, T., & Fulu‐Aiolupotea, S. M. (2014) · Asia Pacific Viewpoint · doi:10.1111/apv.12061 · Cited by 163
Metadata
- Authors
- Tamasese, K., Peteru, C., Waldegrave, C., & Bush, A.
- Affiliations
- The Family Centre (NZ)
- Ministry of Health (NZ)
- Health Pasifika, Capital Coast Pacific Health Board, Porirua, New Zealand
- Corresponding author
- Tamasese, Kiwi
- Venue
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2005-04
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 300-309
- ISSN
- 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1614
- OpenAlex
- W2099675095
- Semantic Scholar
- 332d9b0d5acc528e4136013b43c097d591718370
- Cited by
- 282
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 6.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Cultural Competency in Health Care
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- culturally appropriate mental health services, relational self, mental wellness, community values, cultural stressors
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Culture, Humans, Mental Health Services, Pacific Islands, Samoa, Spiritual Therapies, Spirituality
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-20, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-20 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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