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Far-infrared observations of Sagittarius A - The luminosity and dust density in the central parsec of the Galaxy
Abstract
Far-infrared observations of the central 4 arcmin of the Galaxy with 30-arcsec resolution made simultaneously at 30 microns, 50 microns, and 100 microns are presented. The 30-micron radiation peaks strongly at the position of the galactic center, as determined from the 2-micron surface brightness and the density of ionized gas. The 50- and 100-micron emission is much more extended along the plane and shows two emission lobes, one on either side of the 30-micron peak. At the position of the galactic center itself there is a local minimum in the 100-micron surface brightness. It is concluded that the dust density decreases inward over the central few parsecs of the Galaxy and that the dust density in the central parsec is so low that optical and ultraviolet radiation freely traverses this region. The total luminosity of the sources heating the dust which radiates the far-infrared emission from the central few parsecs is deduced to be between 1 x 10 to the 7th and 3 x 10 to the 7th solar luminosities.
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“The CND has a total mass of 10 5 -6 M ⊙ and hosts several clumps with densities of ∼ 10 6 -8 cm -3 and gas temperatures of ∼ 50 K (Becklin et al. 1982; Brown & Liszt 1984; Genzel et al. 1985; Serabyn et al. 1986; Genzel et al. 2010; Hsieh et al. 2021).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Becklin et al. 1982
In the citing paper
“The central 1 -1 . 5 pc radius can be described as the 'ionized cavity' ( T ∼ 5 -7 × 10 3 K) that is affected by the UV radiation either from Sgr A ∗ or from the nuclear starcluster (Becklin et al. 1982; Guesten et al. 1987; Shukla et al. 2004; Christopher et al. 2005).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Becklin et al. 1982
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The Galactic Center massive black hole and nuclear star cluster
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THE GALACTIC CENTER ENVIRONMENT
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Dense Photodissociation Regions (PDRs)
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BackgroundKinematic and structural analysis of the Minispiral in the Galactic Center from BEAR spectro-imagery
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“This ionized region is surrounded by a torus of neutral material, the Circumnuclear Disk (CND, Liszt 1983; Becklin et al. 1982; Güsten et al. 1987; Yusef-Zadeh et al. 2001).”
BackgroundGAS INFALL TOWARD Sgr A* FROM THE CLUMPY CIRCUMNUCLEAR DISK
Montero-Castaño, M., Herrnstein, R. M., & Ho, P. T. P. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/695/2/1477 · Cited by 105
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On the size of the galactic centre compact radio source: diameter <20 AU
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Traces of Past Activity in the Galactic Centre
Ponti, G., Morris, M. R., Terrier, R., & Goldwurm, A. (2013) · Astrophysics and space science proceedings · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35410-6_26 · Cited by 94
“…from Sgr A* contains a concentration (with total m ss of∼ 105−6 M⊙) of dense and warm molecular and atomic gas (the so called CircumNuclear Disc, CND, Becklin et al. 1982; Genzel et al. 1985; Gusten et al. 1987; Christopher et al. 2005; Montero-Castano et al. 2009; Oka et al. 2011; Martin et al.…”
BackgroundDETECTION OF WIDESPREAD HOT AMMONIA IN THE GALACTIC CENTER
Mills, E. A. C., & Morris, M. R. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/772/2/105 · Cited by 89
“The Circumnuclear disk / Southern streamer The Circumnuclear disk (CND) is a ring of gas and dust surrounding the central supermassive black hole at a radius of 1.5 pc (Becklin et al. 1982; Genzel et al. 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialA population of dust-enshrouded objects orbiting the Galactic black hole
Ciurlo, A., Campbell, R. D., Morris, M. R., Do, T., Ghez, A. M., Hees, A., Sitarski, B. N., O’Neil, K. K., Chu, D. S., Martinez, G. D., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1883-y · Cited by 78
THE EXCITATION OF HCN AND HCO+IN THE GALACTIC CENTER CIRCUMNUCLEAR DISK
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“Measured dust temperatures are much lower, ranging from 20 to 90K (Becklin et al. 1982; Mezger et al. 1989; Etxaluze et al. 2011; Molinari et al. 2011, Lau et al. 2013).”
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“Another important photon target is the emission from the cold (≃ 100K) dust ring of Sgr A West, with total luminosity ≃ 5 × 106L⊙ in the central arcmin (few pc) region around Sgr A∗ (Becklin et al. 1982).”
BackgroundInterstellar gas within ~10 pc of Sagittarius A∗
Ferrière, K. (2012) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117181 · Cited by 70
“Shortly after Becklin et al. (1982) discovered the CNR in dust far-infrared continuum emission, Genzel et al. (1985) observed it in several far-infrared emission lines, namely, in finestructure lines of [O i] and [C ii] and in rotational lines of CO and OH.”
BackgroundA molecular gas streamer feeding the Galactic Centre
Ho, P. T. P., Ho, L. C., Szczepanski, J. C., Jackson, J. M., Armstrong, J. T., & Barrett, A. H. (1991) · Nature · doi:10.1038/350309a0 · Cited by 65
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Novak, G., Dotson, J., Dowell, C. D., Hildebrand, R. H., Renbarger, T., & Schleuning, D. A. (2000) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/308231 · Cited by 62
“4@ region centered on Sgr A* shows the circumnuclear disk and little else (Becklin et al. 1982), the 100 km polarization results are assumed to trace the magnetic Ðeld in the CND reasonably well (see also discussion in Hildebrand et al. 1993).”
BackgroundSOFIA/FORCAST IMAGING OF THE CIRCUMNUCLEAR RING AT THE GALACTIC CENTER
Lau, R. M., Herter, T. L., Morris, M. R., Becklin, E. E., & Adams, J. D. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/775/1/37 · Cited by 61
Self-citationIs the galactic centre black hole a dwarf?
Alien, D. A., & Sanders, R. H. (1986) · Nature · doi:10.1038/319191a0 · Cited by 61
The influence of circumnuclear environment on the radio emission from TDE jets
Generozov, A., Mimica, P., Metzger, B. D., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2439 · Cited by 59
“The Galactic Center also contains a cold circumnuclear ring (e.g. Becklin et al. 1982) with an opening angle of ∼12±3◦ (Lau et al. 2013) and a spatially averaged density of ∼ 105 cm−3 (although this varies by a few orders of magnitude throughout the ring–see Ferrière 2012 and references therein).”
BackgroundBradford, C. M., Stacey, G. J., Nikola, T., Bolatto, A. D., Jackson, J. M., Savage, M. L., & Davidson, J. A. (2005) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/428659 · Cited by 57
Alig, C., Schartmann, M., Burkert, A. M., & Dolag, K. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/771/2/119 · Cited by 56
“On a smaller scale compared to the 100 pc ring we find the circum-nuclear disk (CND) which is again a ring of gas (Becklin et al. 1982) extending roughly from 1.5 pc to around 7 pc. Inside the central evacuated region of the CND the so-called mini-spiral can be found (Ekers et al. 1983; Lo &…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Galactic Center: An Interacting System of Unusual Sources
Yusef-Zadeh, F., Melia, F., & Wardle, M. (2000) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.287.5450.85 · Cited by 55
The Galactic Center: Is It a Massive Black Hole?
Lo, K. Y. (1986) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.233.4771.1394 · Cited by 53
TeV Emission from the Galactic Center Black-Hole PlerionPreprint
Atoyan, A. M., Centre De Recherches Mathématiques, Montreal, U., & DERMER, C. D. (2004) · Cited by 51
SOFIA/FORCAST Imaging of the Circumnuclear Ring at the Galactic CenterPreprint
Lau, R. M., Herter, T., Morris, M., Becklin, E. E., & Adams, J. D. (2014) · Cited by 50
Self-citationMassive Star Formation in the Molecular Ring Orbiting the Black Hole at the Galactic Center
Yusef-Zadeh, F., Braatz, J. A., Wardle, M., & Roberts, D. A. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/591731 · Cited by 47
“The ring was initially discovered more than 25 years ago (Becklin et al. 1982; Gatley et al. 1986; Telesco et al. 2006) via detection of thermal emission from dust.”
BackgroundA Kinship between the EGRET Supernova Remnants and Sagittarius A East
Fatuzzo, M., & Melia, F. (2003) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/378041 · Cited by 47
Latvakoski, H. M., Stacey, G. J., Gull, G. E., & Hayward, T. L. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/306689 · Cited by 46
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“This feature is composed of three ionized gas streamers: the Western Arc (the southwestern photoionized inner edge of the CND; Serabyn & Lacy 1985), and the Northern and Eastern Arms (infalling ionized gas that has been stripped off of the CND or has originated outside the CND; Lo & Claussen 1983; Roberts & Goss 1993).”
BackgroundInfluentialTraces of past activity in the galactic centre
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Polarization and long-term variability of Sgr A* X-ray echo
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“The CND has a total mass of 10 5 − 6 M ⊙ and hosts several clumps with densities of ∼ 10 6 − 8 cm − 3 and gas temperatures of ∼ 50 K (Becklin et al. 1982; Brown & Liszt 1984; Genzel et al. 1985; Serabyn et al. 1986; Genzel et al. 2010; Hsieh et al. 2021).”
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The inner cavity of the circumnuclear disc
Blank, M., Morris, M., Frank, A., Carroll-Nellenback, J., & Duschl, W. J. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw771 · Cited by 30
“The disc has an inner cavity with a radius of ∼1.4 pc, an outer radius of 4-7 pc, densities of ∼ 105 cm−3, and temperatures of a few 100K (Becklin et al. 1982; Genzel et al. 1985; Guesten et al. 1987; Sutton et al. 1990; Zylka et al. 1995; Morris et al. 1999).”
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“However, if the smaller mass derived from far-infrared dust emission (Etxaluze et al. 2011) is assumed, even the CND should not support gravitational instabilities.”
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Crawford, M. K., Genzel, R., Harris, A. I., Jaffe, D. T., Lacy, J., Lugten, J. B., Serabyn, E., & Townes, C. H. (1985) · Nature · doi:10.1038/315467a0 · Cited by 29
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Bryant, A., & Krabbe, A. (2021) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2021.101630 · Cited by 29
Townes, C. H., Lacy, J., Geballe, T. R., et al. (1983) · Nature · doi:10.1038/301661a0 · Cited by 25
Star Formation and Dynamics in the Galactic Centre
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“The CNR was discovered about 30 years ago (Becklin et al. 1982) via detection of double-lobed emission at 50 and 100µm, from dust.”
BackgroundThe Strength of the Sheared Magnetic Field in the Galactic’s Circumnuclear Disk
Guerra, J. A., López-Rodríguez, E., Chuss, D. T., Butterfield, N., & Schmelz, J. T. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acdacd · Cited by 22
“The circumcuclear disk (CND; e.g., Becklin et al. 1982; Liszt et al. 1983; Guesten et al. 1987; McGary et al. 2001) is an inclined, ∼70°, ring of dense, 104–106 cm−3, molecular gas and dust with inner and outer radii of ∼1.5 pc and 3− 7 pc, respectively (e.g., Guesten et al. 1987; Jackson et al.…”
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A Self-Consistent Model for the Broadband Spectrum of Sagittarius A Eastat the Galactic Center
Melia, F., Fatuzzo, M., Yusef-Zadeh, F., & Markoff, S. (1998) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/311713 · Cited by 24
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Imaging the Hot Molecular Gas at the Centre of the Galaxy
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BackgroundInfluentialMelia, F., Yusef‐Zadeh, F., & Fatuzzo, M. (1998) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/306456 · Cited by 17
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“Observations toward Sgr A∗ (R.A. (J2000)=17h 45 m 40.036s; DEC. (J2000)=-29◦00′28.17′′) and the southern lobe of circumnuclear disk (CND-S, Becklin et al. 1982) were carried out using 28 12 m-array antennas as part of project 2013.1.01058.”
MethodInfluentialA hybrid model of GeV–TeV gamma ray emission from the Galactic center
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Impact of Accretion Flow Dynamics on Gas-dynamical Black Hole Mass Estimates
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“Rather, it is organized into the “mini”-spiral, a pc-scale structure with multiple arms and distinct non-Keplerian motions (Becklin et al. 1982; Montero-Castaño et al. 2009; Irons et al. 2012).”
BackgroundIonized Gas In The Galactic Center: New Observations And InterpretationPreprint
Richter, M. J. (2016) · doi:10.15781/t2vf9q · Cited by 20
Dusty plasma in active galactic nuclei
Czerny, B., Zajaček, M., Naddaf, M.-H., Śniegowska, M., Panda, S., Różáńska, A., Adhikari, T. P., Pandey, A. K., Jaiswal, V. K., Karas, V., et al. (2023) · The European Physical Journal D · doi:10.1140/epjd/s10053-023-00630-8 · Cited by 14
“5 pc to ∼ 3–4 parsecs, a dense ring-like circumnuclear disk (CND) is located that is composed of neutral and molecular gas and dust with the equilibrium temperature between 20 and 80 K [18,131].”
BackgroundEXPLORING THE NATURE OF THE GALACTIC CENTER γ-RAY SOURCE WITH THE CHERENKOV TELESCOPE ARRAY
Linden, T., & Profumo, S. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/760/1/23 · Cited by 14
“This ring-shaped cloud of gas is located between 1-3 pc from the GC, inclined 20◦ with respect to the Galactic plane, and contains gas densities approximately two orders of magnitude larger than in the surrounding GC medium (Becklin et al. 1982; Bradford et al. 2005).”
BackgroundMid-Infrared Emission from the Galactic Center
Gezari, D. Y. (1992) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-2813-1_2 · Cited by 14
The Galactic Center: A Petaelectronvolt Cosmic-ray Acceleration Factory
Guo, Y.-Q., Tian, Z., Wang, Z., Li, H.-J., & Chen, T.-L. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa5f58 · Cited by 14
“Although the overall behavior of GC is quite silent, the observations in X-ray and infrared bands indicate that it still has continuous weak activities (Becklin et al. 1982; Davidson et al. 1992; Dodds-Eden et al. 2009, 2011).”
BackgroundEffects of Turbulence in the Circumnuclear Disk
Dinh, C. K., Salas, J. M., Morris, M., & Naoz, S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac185b · Cited by 17
van Donkelaar, F., Mayer, L., Capelo, P. R., Tamfal, T., Quinn, T., & Madau, P. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae804 · Cited by 11
Molecular Clouds in the Central 100-pc of the Galactic Center
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Zeeman Observations of the Magnetic Field in the Galactic Centre
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Hybrid model of GeV-TeV gamma ray emission from Galactic CenterPreprint
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Magnetic field at the Galactic centre from multiwavelength dust polarization
Akshaya, M. S., & Hoang, T. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1464 · Cited by 10
The formation and stability of a cold disc made out of stellar winds in the Galactic centre
Calderón, D., Cuadra, J., Russell, C. M. P., Burkert, A. M., Rosswog, S., & Balakrishnan, M. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452800 · Cited by 12
Hydroxyl, water, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and neutral carbon towards the Sagittarius A complex
Karlsson, R., Sandqvist, A., Hjalmarson, Å., Winnberg, A., Fathi, K., Frisk, U., & Olberg, M. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220471 · Cited by 8
“A vast number of studies have been made since the CND was first detected in dust emission by Becklin et al. (1982).”
BackgroundHigh-speed molecular cloudlets around the Galactic center’s supermassive black hole
Goicoechea, J. R., Pety, J., Chapillon, E., Cernicharo, J., Gérin, M., Herrera, C. N., Requena-Torres, M. A., & Santa-Maria, M. G. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833558/pdf · Cited by 13
Mid-infrared Studies of Dusty Sources in the Galactic Center
Bhat, H. K., Sabha, N. B., Zajaček, M., Eckart, A., Schödel, R., Hosseini, S. E., Peißker, F., & Zensus, J. A. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6106 · Cited by 11
Electron‐Positron Annihilation Radiation from Sagittarius A East at the Galactic Center
Fatuzzo, M., Melia, F., & Johann Rafelski, A. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/319069 · Cited by 9
SOFIA, an airborne observatory for infrared astronomy
Krabbe, A., Mehlert, D., Röser, H.-P., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/0143-0807/34/6/s161 · Cited by 9
“By 1982, a molecular torus had been discovered with the Kuiper Airborne Observatory3 (Becklin et al 1982 and figure 7).”
BackgroundConstraints on Jet‐driven Disk Accretion in Sagittarius A*
Jolley, E. J. D., & Kuncic, Z. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/527312 · Cited by 9
“However, the observational data are mostly upper limits in this band, and there may be other contributions to this spectral component, such as warm dust emission (e.g., Becklin et al. 1982).”
BackgroundFIFI-LS Observations of the Circumnuclear Ring— Probing the High-density Phase of the PDR
Iserlohe, C., Bryant, A., Krabbe, A., Beckmann, S., Colditz, S., Fischer, C., Fumi, F., Geis, N., Henning, T. K., Hönle, R., et al. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab391f · Cited by 8
Infrared point sources aligned with the SgrA* non-thermal radio source
Stein, W. A., & Forrest, W. J. (1986) · Nature · doi:10.1038/323232a0 · Cited by 8
Genzel, R. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/10057813_31 · Cited by 8
Liszt, H. S. (1988) · Astronomy and astrophysics library · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3936-9_8 · Cited by 8
Exploring High‐Velocity NH3(6, 6) Emission at the Center of Our Galaxy
Donovan, J. L., Herrnstein, R. M., & Ho, P. T. P. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/505566 · Cited by 7
Ciurlo, A., Paumard, T., Rouan, D., & Clénet, Y. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731763 · Cited by 7
“This region exhibits two main structures of interstellar medium (ISM): the circumnuclear disk (CND), composed of dust and neutral gas (Becklin et al. 1982), and the H II region Sgr A West (the Minispiral), consisting of dust and ionized gas (Lo & Claussen 1983).”
BackgroundGenzel, R. (1989) · Symposium - International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s0074180900186802 · Cited by 7
Gezari, D. Y., Dwek, E., & Városi, F. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0752-5_42 · Cited by 7
Gatley, I. (1984) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-7251-3_22 · Cited by 7
Self-citationDust Towards the Galactic Centre
Aitken, D. K. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2462-8_4 · Cited by 6
The Spectrum, Luminosity and Morphology of SGR A*
Mezger, P. G. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0752-5_50 · Cited by 6
Winnewisser, G. F. (1996) · Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s0021663550571 · Cited by 5
Revealing the heart of the galaxy: the Milky Way and its black hole
(2014) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.51-6728 · Cited by 5
Magnetized Structures in Sgr A West
Aitken, D. K. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2362-1_62 · Cited by 5
Constraints on jet-driven disk accretion in Sagittarius A ⋆Preprint
Jolley, E. J. D., & Kuncic, Z. (2013) · Cited by 5
Gezari, D. Y., Dwek, E., & Városi, F. (1996) · Symposium - International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s0074180900229732 · Cited by 5
MOLsphere and pulsations of the Galactic Center’s red supergiant GCIRS 7 from VLTI/GRAVITY
Rodríguez-Coira, G., Paumard, T., Perrin, G. S., Vincent, F. H., Abuter, R., Amorim, A., Bauböck, M., Berger, J. P., Bonnet, H., Brandner, W., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039501 · Cited by 5
Star Formation at the Galactic Center
Rieke, M. J. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2973-9_21 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Becklin, E. E., Gatley, I., & Werner, M. W.
- ORCID
- Gatley, I.
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 1982-07
- Volume
- 258
- Pages
- 135
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2031070315
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 6.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Keywords
- Sgr A*, Galactic Center, far-infrared emission, dust luminosity, central parsec, 100 micron emission, ionized gas
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