Evidence for the Existence of Three Primary Strategies in Plants and Its Relevance to Ecological and Evolutionary Theory
Abstract
It is suggested that evolution in plants may be associated with the emergence of three primary strategies, each of which may be identified by reference to a number of characteristics including morphological features, resource allocation, phenology, and response to stress. The competitive strategy prevails in productive, relatively undisturbed vegetation, the stress-tolerant strategy is associated with continuously unproductive conditions, and the ruderal strategy is characteristic of severely disturbed but potentially productive habitats. A triangular model based upon the three strategies may be reconciled with the theory of r- and K-selection, provides an insight into the processes of vegetation succession and dominance, and appears to be capable of extension to fungi and to animals.
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Plant growth and development in Cotton2K are based on the 'stress' theory, which includes stresses related to air temperature, water, C, and N.
“Plant growth and development are based on the 'stress' theory (Craine, 2005; Grime, 1977), which includes stresses related to air temperature, water, C, and N.”
From Development and Application of Process-based Simulation Models for Cotton Production: A Review of Past, Present, and Future Directions (2014) · cites this paper as Grime, 1977
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Community Assembly, Niche Conservatism, and Adaptive Evolution in Changing Environments
Ackerly, D. D. (2003) · International Journal of Plant Sciences · doi:10.1086/368401 · Cited by 894 · see citing works
“…of contrasting ecological characteristics of pioneer versus persistent, late-successional species, may also play a large role in maintaining plant diversity (Tilman 1994) and thus help maintain high levels of trait diversity within communities (Grime 1977; Bazzaz 1979; Rees and Westboy 1997).”
BackgroundPrimary Succession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation
Walker, L. R., & del Moral, R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615078 · Cited by 888 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of Competition in Field Experiments
Gurevitch, J., Morrow, L. L., Wallace, A., & Walsh, J. S. (1992) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/285428 · Cited by 851 · see citing works
Littler, M. M., & Littler, D. S. (1980) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/283610 · Cited by 865 · see citing works
Trade‐offs in community ecology: linking spatial scales and species coexistence
Kneitel, J. M., & Chase, J. M. (2003) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00551.x · Cited by 848 · see citing works
Eissenstat, D. M., & Yanai, R. D. (1997) · Advances in ecological research/Advances in Ecological Research · doi:10.1016/s0065-2504(08)60005-7 · Cited by 844 · see citing works
Mixing plant species in cropping systems: concepts, tools and models. A review
Malézieux, É., Crozat, Y., Dupraz, C., Laurans, M., Makowski, D., Ozier‐Lafontaine, H., Rapidel, B., de Tourdonnet, S., & Valantin‐Morison, M. (2008) · Agronomy for Sustainable Development · doi:10.1051/agro:2007057 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
“For a long time, plant ecologists have intensively studied competition and facilitation along resource gradients (Donald, 1958; Grime, 1977; Tilman, 1988; Wilson and Tilman, 1988).”
BackgroundPlant functional traits and environmental filters at a regional scale
Díaz, S. M., Cabido, M., & Casanoves, F. (1998) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.2307/3237229 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
“Simplification is urgently needed in order to strengthen community ecology as an integrated and predictive science (Grime 1993). In the same direction, authors like Tucker et al. (1984), Nemani & Running (1989, 1996), Chapin (1993) or McIntyre et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialHierro, J. L., Maron, J. L., & Callaway, R. M. (2004) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.0022-0477.2004.00953.x · Cited by 836 · see citing works
“Disturbanceadapted or ruderal species are often short-lived, fast growing and have high fecundity (Grime 1974, 1977; Bazzaz 1979) and, over time, these species are thought to be replaced by late successional species (Bazzaz 1979; Glenn-Lewin & van der Maarel 1992).”
BackgroundPlant functional types and ecosystem function in relation to global change
Díaz, S. M., & Cabido, M. (1997) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.2307/3237198 · Cited by 825 · see citing works
SILVERTOWN, J. W., Franco, M., Pisanty, I., & Mendoza, A. (1993) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.2307/2261525 · Cited by 811 · see citing works
The Nature of Nutrient Limitation in Plant Communities
Chapin, F. S., Vitousek, P. M., & Cleve, K. V. (1986) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/284466 · Cited by 802 · see citing works
Evaluating life‐history strategies of reef corals from species traits
Darling, E. S., Álvarez‐Filip, L., Oliver, T. A., McClanahan, T. R., & Côté, I. M. (2012) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01861.x · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Sources of variability in canopy reflectance and the convergent properties of plants
Ollinger, S. V. (2010) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03536.x · Cited by 800 · see citing works
“That this challenge exists is far from a new idea and, in the ecological and ecophysiological literature, convergence among plant traits has been an active research topic for some time (e.g. Grime, 1977; Mooney & Gulmon, 1979; Wright et al., 2004).”
BackgroundTowards a multidimensional root trait framework: a tree root review
Weemstra, M., Mommer, L., Visser, E. J. W., van Ruijven, J., Kuyper, T. W., Mohren, G. M. J., & Sterck, F. J. (2016) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.14003 · Cited by 795 · see citing works
Herbivores And The Dynamics Of Communities And Ecosystems
Huntly, N. J. (1991) · Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics · doi:10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.002401 · Cited by 789 · see citing works
Comparative ecology of seed size and dispersal
Westoby, M., Leishman, M. R., & Lord, J. M. (1996) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0114 · Cited by 778 · see citing works
Taxonomic basis for variation in the colonization strategy of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Hart, M. M., & Reader, R. J. (2002) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.0028-646x.2001.00312.x · Cited by 778 · see citing works
“A lifehistory strategy can be described using a wide range of species traits but usually these include colonizing ability, dispersal ability, tolerance of stress and disturbance, investment into reproduction vs vegetative growth, and mode of reproduction (Grime, 1977; Pianka, 1970).”
BackgroundAgrawal, A. A., & Fishbein, M. (2006) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[132:pds]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
“Key words: Asclepias; cardenolides; chemical ecology; cluster analysis; coevolution; Danaus plexippus; herbivory; latex; milkweed; monarch butterfly; phylogenetically independent contrasts; phytochemistry; plant–insect interactions.”
BackgroundFACILITATION AND COMPETITION ON GRADIENTS IN ALPINE PLANT COMMUNITIES
Choler, P., Michalet, R., & Callaway, R. M. (2001) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[3295:facogi]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 761 · see citing works
“Competitive effects of neighbors were much more prominent at sheltered sites and low elevations where productivity is higher, suggesting that abiotic stress is lower (see Grime 1977).”
BackgroundGoldberg, D. E., & Barton, A. M. (1992) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/285357 · Cited by 730 · see citing works
“…suggest hypotheses about the answers to these questions for plants, including r- and K-selection theory (MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Pianka 1970), strategy theory (Grime 1973, 1977, 1979, 1988), and mechanistic models of competition (Tilman 1982, 1988; Smith and Huston 1989; Goldberg 1990).”
BackgroundHabitat Selection and Population Interactions: The Search for Mechanism
Rosenzweig, M. L. (1991) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/285137 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
Chapin, F. S., & Kedrowski, R. A. (1983) · Ecology · doi:10.2307/1937083 · Cited by 732 · see citing works
A comparative approach to predicting competitive ability from plant traits
Gaudet, C. L., & Keddy, P. A. (1988) · Nature · doi:10.1038/334242a0 · Cited by 727 · see citing works
PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND RAIN USE EFFICIENCY ACROSS A PRECIPITATION GRADIENT ON THE MONGOLIA PLATEAU
Bai, Y., Wu, J., Qi, X., Pan, Q., Huang, J., Yang, D., & Han, X. (2008) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/07-0992.1 · Cited by 724 · see citing works
“However, previous studies also showed that drier sites tend to have lower and less variable RUE because of low plant density, low production potential, high evaporation potential, and high tolerance to water stress (NoyMeir 1973, Grime 1977, Paruelo et al. 1999).”
ResultBrooker, R. W., & Callaghan, T. V. (1998) · Oikos · doi:10.2307/3546481 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Lavorel, S., Grigulis, K., Lamarque, P., Colace, M., Garden, D. L., Girel, J., Pellet, G., & Douzet, R. (2010) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01753.x · Cited by 668 · see citing works
“This would be achieved by using knowledge on associations and trade-offs among traits as captured by plant strategy schemes (Grime 1977; Westoby 1998) and trait spectra analyses (Diaz et al. 2004; Wright et al. 2004; Chave et al. 2009).”
BackgroundComponents of Resource Competition in Plant Communities
Goldberg, D. E. (1990) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-294452-9.50007-2 · Cited by 659 · see citing works
Ecosystem engineering in space and time
Hastings, A., Byers, J. E., Crooks, J. A., Cuddington, K. M., Jones, C. G., Lambrinos, J., Talley, T. S., & Wilson, W. G. (2006) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00997.x · Cited by 658 · see citing works
“which can affect species life-history characteristics, such as reproductive size or age, mobility, mate selection traits, degree of specialization or competitive ability (Grime 1977).”
BackgroundA Quantitative Analysis of Shoot Phenology and Dominance in Herbaceous Vegetation
Al-Mufti, M. M., Sydes, C., Furness, S. B., Grime, J. P., & Band, S. R. (1977) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.2307/2259378 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
“A detailed analysis of these phenomena has been attempted elsewhere (Grime 1977); here the main points will be summarized in the form of the following propositions.”
BackgroundSelf-citationEvidence of the ‘plant economics spectrum’ in a subarctic flora
Freschet, G. T., Cornelissen, J. H. C., van Logtestijn, R. S. P., & Aerts, R. (2009) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01615.x · Cited by 638 · see citing works
“Plant ecological strategy schemes (e.g. Grime 1977; Westoby 1998; Dı́az et al. 2004) classify plants according tomeaningful axes of plant specialization.”
BackgroundReconciling plant strategy theories of Grime and Tilman
CRAINE, J. M. (2005) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01043.x · Cited by 634 · see citing works
“…evolutionary tradeoffs in differentiating species and state that understanding plant traits, resource acquisition and loss by plants, and the effect of disturbance on individuals holds the key to understanding patterns of diversity (Grime 1977; Tilman 1982), their theories remain to be reconciled.”
BackgroundLeaf lifespan as a determinant of leaf structure and function among 23 amazonian tree species
Reich, P. B., Uhl, C., Walters, M. B., & Ellsworth, D. S. (1991) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/bf00317383 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
“It is logical that species which are adapted to habitats with low nutrient availability have intrinsically nutrient-poor leaves, low photosynthetic and growth rates, a predominance of carbon- based structural defenses (such as leaf toughness), and low rates of tissue turnover ( Grime 1977; Chapin 1980; Coley et al. 19…”
BackgroundPlant Species Diversity in Natural and Managed Forests of the Pacific Northwest
Halpern, C. B., & Spies, T. A. (1995) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.2307/2269343 · Cited by 616 · see citing works
Fungal traits that drive ecosystem dynamics on land
Treseder, K. K., & Lennon, J. T. (2015) · Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews · doi:10.1128/mmbr.00001-15 · Cited by 625 · see citing works
“In Grime’s framework, competitors are characterized as species that can outcompete other species by more effectively exploiting available resources or by directly interfering with competitors.”
BackgroundAllelopathy and exotic plant invasion
Hierro, J. L., & Callaway, R. M. (2003) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1023/a:1026208327014 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Life history strategies, population regulation, and implications for fisheries management
Winemiller, K. O. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences · doi:10.1139/f05-040 · Cited by 616 · see citing works
“Grime (1977) proposed a model for plants that contrasted ruderal (r-selected with high reproductive allocation), competitive (K-selected with greater investment in soma), and stress-resistant species (plants with traits of adults and (or) seeds that enhance fitness in harsh habitats).”
BackgroundMultiple facets of biodiversity drive the diversity–stability relationship
Craven, D., Eisenhauer, N., Pearse, W. D., Hautier, Y., Isbell, F. I., Roscher, C., Bahn, M., Beierkuhnlein, C., Bönisch, G., Buchmann, N., et al. (2018) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0647-7 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
A global method for calculating plant CSR ecological strategies applied across biomes world‐wide
Pierce, S., Negreiros, D., Cerabolini, B. E. L., Kattge, J., Díaz, S. M., Michael Kleyer, A., Shipley, B., Wright, S. J., Soudzilovskaia, N. A., Onipchenko, V. G., et al. (2016) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12722 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
“A prominent strategy scheme is Grime’s (1974, 1977, 2001) competitor, stress tolerator, ruderal (CSR) theory (reviewed by Grime & Pierce 2012), in which the three principal strategies represent viable trait combinations arising under conditions of competition, abiotic limitation to growth or…”
Self-citationThe resource availability hypothesis revisited: a meta‐analysis
Endara, M., & Coley, P. D. (2010) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01803.x · Cited by 608 · see citing works
“Long-lived leaves minimize nutrient losses (Aerts 1995) and constitute an essential adaptation of slow-growing species to habitats with low-resource availability (Grime 1977).”
BackgroundInfluentialClimate sensitivity of shrub growth across the tundra biome
Myers‐Smith, I. H., Elmendorf, S. C., Beck, P. S. A., Wilmking, M., Hallinger, M., Blok, D., Tape, K. D., Rayback, S. A., Macias‐Fauria, M., Forbes, B. C., et al. (2015) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2697 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Bolker, B. M., & Pacala, S. W. (1999) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/303199 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
“The three specializations also map onto Grime’s “triangle” of ruderal, competitive, and tolerant species, if we interpret the triangle narrowly as a set of ecological strategies for resource competition (Grime 1977, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of plant growth rate and leaf lifetime on the amount and type of anti-herbivore defense
Coley, P. D. (1988) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/bf00380050 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
A plant perspective on nitrogen cycling in the rhizosphere
Moreau, D., Bardgett, R. D., Finlay, R. D., Jones, D. L., & Philippot, L. (2019) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13303 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Hopper, S. D. (2009) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-009-0068-0 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
The balanced‐growth hypothesis and the allometry of leaf and root biomass allocation
Shipley, B., & Meziane, D. (2002) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00626.x · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Factors Affecting Mineral Nutrient Acquisition by Plants
Clarkson, D. T. (1985) · Annual Review of Plant Physiology · doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.36.060185.000453 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
Allocating C-S-R Plant Functional Types: A Soft Approach to a Hard Problem
Hodgson, J., Wilson, P. J., Hunt, R., Grime, J. P., & Thompson, K. (1999) · Oikos · doi:10.2307/3546494 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Grime, J. P.
- Corresponding author
- Grime, J. P.
- Venue
- The American Naturalist
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 1977-11
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 982
- Pages
- 1169-1194
- ISSN
- 0003-0147 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5323
- OpenAlex
- W2055424972
- Cited by
- 5,754
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 228 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 208 · 2023: 281 · 2022: 255 · 2021: 287 · 2020: 248 · 2019: 279 · 2018: 257 · 2017: 204 · 2016: 248 · 2015: 221 · 2014: 184 · 2013: 193 · 2012: 175
- FWCI
- 48.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The American Naturalist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Botany and Plant Ecology Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
- Keywords
- plant life strategies, competitive strategy, ruderal strategy, r/K selection, resource allocation, phenology, stress response, vegetation succession, plant dominance, triangular model, plant evolution, fungi
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