A leaf-height-seed (LHS) plant ecology strategy scheme

Westoby, Mark

doi:10.1023/a:1004327224729

Cited by 1,925Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics StudiesBotany and Plant Ecology StudiesPlant Water Relations and Carbon Dynamics

A leaf-height-seed (LHS) plant ecology strategy scheme

Westoby, Mark·1998·Plant and Soil

DOI 10.1023/a:1004327224729

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Plant community ecology and functional ecology have proven useful for understanding global patterns of vegetation.
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EFFECTS OF BIODIVERSITY ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING: A CONSENSUS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE
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“Defining types based on just a few traits known to affect many functions (such as specific leaf area, plant height, and seed mass; Westoby 1998, Grime 2001) may alleviate this problem, but whether such types yield insights into biodiversity/ecosystem functioning relationships within ecosystems…”
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New handbook for standardised measurement of plant functional traits worldwide
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“universally, because they are at the core of the plant life cycle (Grime et al. 1997; Westoby 1998).”
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A handbook of protocols for standardised and easy measurement of plant functional traits worldwide
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“References on theory and significance: Beard (1955); Jarvis (1975); Gaudet and Keddy (1988); Niinemets and Kull (1994); Niklas (1994); Gartner (1995); Givnish (1995); Westoby (1998); Gitay et al. (1999); Thomas and Bazzaz (1999); Reich (2000); Grime (2001).”
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The world‐wide ‘fast–slow’ plant economics spectrum: a traits manifesto
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“1999), or to capture several response or effect processes with few traits (Weiher et al. 1999; Westoby 1998).”
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The global spectrum of plant form and function
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Self-citation
Causes and consequences of variation in leaf mass per area (LMA): a meta‐analysis
Poorter, H., Niinemets, Ü., Poorter, L., Wright, I. J., & Villar, R. (2009) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02830.x · Cited by 2,936 · see citing works
“The LMA plays a central role in various plant strategy schemes (Westoby, 1998; Grime, 2001; Westoby et al., 2002), where it can be considered an index of a species’ position along a continuum between low-LMA species at one end (that realize a fast resource acquisition and growth), and high-LMA species at the other (th…”
Background
TRY – a global database of plant traits
KATTGE, J., DÍAZ, S., LAVOREL, S., PRENTICE, I. C., LEADLEY, P., BÖNISCH, G., GARNIER, E., WESTOBY, M., REICH, P. B., WRIGHT, I. J., et al. (2011) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02451.x · Cited by 2,638 · see citing works
“4 Examples of trait frequency distributions for four ecologically relevant traits (Westoby, 1998; Wright et al., 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Plant phenotypic plasticity in a changing climate
Nicotra, A. B., Atkin, O. K., Bonser, S. P., Davidson, A. M., Finnegan, E. J., Mathesius, U., Poot, P., Purugganan, M. D., Richards, C. L., Valladares, F., et al. (2010) · Trends in Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2010.09.008 · Cited by 2,207 · see citing works
“[27,78] B Water use efﬁciency Carbon gain as a function of water loss.”
Incorporating plant functional diversity effects in ecosystem service assessments
Díaz, S., Lavorel, S., de Bello, F., Quétier, F., Grigulis, K., & Robson, T. M. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0704716104 · Cited by 1,658 · see citing works
The plant traits that drive ecosystems: Evidence from three continents
Díaz, S. M., Hodgson, J., Thompson, K. A., Cabido, M., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Jalili, A., Montserrat‐Martí, G., Grime, J. P., Zarrinkamar, F., Asri, Y., et al. (2004) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2004.tb02266.x · Cited by 1,632 · see citing works
Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche
Bond, W. J., & Midgley, J. J. (2001) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(00)02033-4 · Cited by 1,507 · see citing works
The Evolution of Plant Functional Variation: Traits, Spectra, and Strategies
Reich, P. B., Wright, I. J., Cavender-Bares, J. M., Craine, J. M., Oleksyn, J., Westoby, M., & Walters, M. B. (2003) · International Journal of Plant Sciences · doi:10.1086/374368 · Cited by 1,464 · see citing works
“A second way traits can come to be correlated across species is by coordination (Westoby 1998; Ackerly and Reich 1999; Shipley and Lechowicz 2000).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Plant trait responses to grazing – a global synthesis
Díaz, S. M., Lavorel, S., McIntyre, S., Falczuk, V., Casanoves, F., Milchunas, D. G., Skarpe, C., Rusch, G. M., Sternberg, M., Noy‐Meir, I., et al. (2006) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01288.x · Cited by 1,190 · see citing works
“Prominent examples of this approach are the models of Grime (1977, 1990, 2001) and Westoby (1998, 1999).”
Method
A global meta‐analysis of the relative extent of intraspecific trait variation in plant communities
Siefert, A., Violle, C., Chalmandrier, L., Albert, C. H., Taudière, A., Fajardo, A., Aarssen, L. W., Baraloto, C., Carlucci, M. B., Cianciaruso, M. V., et al. (2015) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12508 · Cited by 1,118 · see citing works
“Maximum plant height is considered an important plant strategy indicator that is linked to light acquisition and competitive ability (Westoby 1998; Violle et al. 2009).”
Original Articles: Plant Attribute Diversity, Resilience, and Ecosystem Function: The Nature and Significance of Dominant and Minor Species
Walker, B., Kinzig, A., & Langridge, J. (1999) · Ecosystems · doi:10.1007/s100219900062 · Cited by 1,062 · see citing works
Challenging Theophrastus: A common core list of plant traits for functional ecology
Weiher, E. R., van der Werf, A., Thompson, K. A., Roderick, M. L., Garnier, É., & Eriksson, O. (1999) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.2307/3237076 · Cited by 1,065 · see citing works
The evolutionary ecology of seed size.
Leishman, M. R., Wright, I. J., Moles, A. T., & Westoby, M. (2000) · CABI Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1079/9780851994321.0031 · Cited by 1,036 · see citing works
Self-citation
Land-plant ecology on the basis of functional traits
Westoby, M., & Wright, I. J. (2006) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.004 · Cited by 1,014 · see citing works
“Opinions vary, but three trait dimensions are now widely accepted as important ([26,27; reviewed in [17]): † A ‘leaf economic spectrum’ [10,28] runs from species with cheaply constructed leaf area but short-duration return on investment, to species with high leaf mass per area (LMA) and long leaf…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Plant functional traits and the multidimensional nature of species coexistence
Kraft, N. J. B., Godoy, Ó., & Levine, J. M. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1413650112 · Cited by 984 · see citing works
Resprouting as a key functional trait: how buds, protection and resources drive persistence after fire
Clarke, P. J., Lawes, M. J., Midgley, J. J., Lamont, B. B., Ojeda, F., Burrows, G. E., Enright, N. J., & Knox, K. J. E. (2012) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.12001 · Cited by 952 · see citing works
Specific leaf area and leaf dry matter content as alternative predictors of plant strategies
Wilson, P. J., Thompson, K. A., & Hodgson, J. (1999) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00427.x · Cited by 949 · see citing works
Defining pyromes and global syndromes of fire regimes
Archibald, S., Lehmann, C. E. R., Gómez-Dans, J. L., & Bradstock, R. A. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1211466110 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Evaluating life‐history strategies of reef corals from species traits
Darling, E. S., Álvarez‐Filip, L., Oliver, T. A., McClanahan, T. R., & Côté, I. M. (2012) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01861.x · Cited by 799 · see citing works
“The next step may be to simplify the assignment of species to conceptual strategies described by multiple traits by defining the axes of life-history variation using single traits (e.g. the leaf–height–seed strategy; Westoby 1998), which can allow for even more direct global comparisons across species.”
BackgroundInfluential
A standardized protocol for the determination of specific leaf area and leaf dry matter content
Garnier, É., Shipley, B., Roumet, C., & Laurent, G. (2001) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00563.x · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Corrigendum to : New handbook for standardised measurement of plant functional traits worldwide
Harguindeguy, N. P., Díaz, S., Garnier, É., Lavorel, S., Poorter, H., Jaureguiberry, P., Bret-Harte, M. S., Cornwell, W. K., Craine, J. M., Gurvich, D. E., et al. (2016) · Australian Journal of Botany · doi:10.1071/bt12225_co · Cited by 764 · see citing works
ARE FUNCTIONAL TRAITS GOOD PREDICTORS OF DEMOGRAPHIC RATES? EVIDENCE FROM FIVE NEOTROPICAL FORESTS
Poorter, L., Wright, S. J., Paz, H., Ackerly, D. D., Condit, R., Ibarra‐Manríquez, G., Harms, K. E., Licona, J. C., Martı́nez-Ramos, M., Mazer, S. J., et al. (2008) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/07-0207.1 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Using Phylogenetic, Functional and Trait Diversity to Understand Patterns of Plant Community Productivity
Cadotte, M. W., Cavender-Bares, J. M., Tilman, D. G., & Oakley, T. H. (2009) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005695 · Cited by 718 · see citing works
Using plant functional traits to understand the landscape distribution of multiple ecosystem services
Lavorel, S., Grigulis, K., Lamarque, P., Colace, M., Garden, D. L., Girel, J., Pellet, G., & Douzet, R. (2010) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01753.x · Cited by 668 · see citing works
“This would be achieved by using knowledge on associations and trade-offs among traits as captured by plant strategy schemes (Grime 1977; Westoby 1998) and trait spectra analyses (Diaz et al. 2004; Wright et al. 2004; Chave et al. 2009).”
Background
Intraspecific variability and trait‐based community assembly
Jung, V., Violle, C., Mondy, C. P., Hoffmann, L., & Muller, S. (2010) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01687.x · Cited by 645 · see citing works
“SLA and height are key plant functional traits reflecting the trade-off between resource capture and conservation (Westoby 1998;Wright et al. 2004).”
Background
Evidence of the ‘plant economics spectrum’ in a subarctic flora
Freschet, G. T., Cornelissen, J. H. C., van Logtestijn, R. S. P., & Aerts, R. (2009) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01615.x · Cited by 638 · see citing works
“…traits, mostly allometric and regenerative traits, have previously been integrated into well-known strategy schemes (e.g. Grime et al. 1997; Westoby 1998; Craine et al. 2001; Ackerly 2004; Dı́az et al. 2004), and leaf traits were found to be the strongest representatives of the resource…”
Background
A global meta-analysis of the relative extent of intraspecific trait variation in plant communities
Siefert, A., Violle, C., Chalmandrier, L., Albert, C. H., Taudière, A., Fajardo, A., Aarssen, L. W., Baraloto, C., Carlucci, M. B., Cianciaruso, M. V., et al. (2015) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-123320 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Plants and climate change: complexities and surprises
Parmesan, C., & Hanley, M. E. (2015) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcv169 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
“Yet while more sophisticated groupings based on strictly defined sets of readily quantifiable traits have been available for decades (Grime, 1979; Westoby, 1998), these seem to be applied infrequently to manipulative climate-change experiments.”
Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing: An Ecological and Economic Perspective
(2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.001.0001 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Invasion success of exotic plants in natural ecosystems: the role of disturbance, plant attributes and freedom from herbivores
Lake, J. C., & Leishman, M. R. (2003) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(03)00294-5 · Cited by 618 · see citing works
“Specific leaf area can be thought of as the investment per unit of light-capture surface deployed, and is a critical trait in the carbon fixation strategy of plants (Westoby, 1998).”
Background
Remote sensing of plant functional types
Ustin, S. L., & Gamon, J. A. (2010) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03284.x · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Inferring community assembly mechanisms from functional diversity patterns: the importance of multiple assembly processes
Spasojevic, M. J., & Suding, K. N. (2012) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01945.x · Cited by 592 · see citing works
“…a trait that is often allometrically related to overall plant size (biomass, rooting depth, lateral spread) and competitive interactions for light (Westoby 1998; Aan, Hallik & Kull 2006; Vojtech et al. 2008) as well as facilitative interactions by blocking wind (Wilson 1959), was measured as…”
Background
The balanced‐growth hypothesis and the allometry of leaf and root biomass allocation
Shipley, B., & Meziane, D. (2002) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00626.x · Cited by 586 · see citing works
FUNCTIONAL STRATEGIES OF CHAPARRAL SHRUBS IN RELATION TO SEASONAL WATER DEFICIT AND DISTURBANCE
Ackerly, D. D. (2004) · Ecological Monographs · doi:10.1890/03-4022 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
ARCHITECTURE OF 54 MOIST-FOREST TREE SPECIES: TRAITS, TRADE-OFFS, AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Poorter, L., Bongers, L., & Bongers, F. (2006) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[1289:aomtst]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data Using CANOCO
(2005) · Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America · doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2005)86[201:maoedu]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Latitudinal gradients as natural laboratories to infer species' responses to temperature
Frenne, P. D., GRAAE, B. J., Rodríguez‐Sánchez, F., Kolb, A., Chabrerie, O., Decocq, G., Kort, H. D., Schrijver, A. D., Diekmann, M., Eriksson, O., et al. (2013) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12074 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“The SLA (leaf area divided by its dry weight) is related to the growth rate and ecological strategy of plants (Westoby 1998; Poorter et al. 2009).”
Background
Can grazing response of herbaceous plants be predicted from simple vegetative traits?
Díaz, S. M., Noy‐Meir, I., & Cabido, M. (2001) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00635.x · Cited by 514 · see citing works
A trait-based approach to comparative functional plant ecology: concepts, methods and applications for agroecology. A review
Garnier, É., & Navas, M. (2011) · Agronomy for Sustainable Development · doi:10.1007/s13593-011-0036-y · Cited by 490 · see citing works
“Among the traits involved in the LES, SLA appears as the easiest, quickest and cheapest to measure, and is thus widely used to assess the position of species on the acquisition/conservation trade-off (Westoby, 1998; Weiher et al., 1999; Westoby et al., 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
An integrated framework of plant form and function: the belowground perspective
Weigelt, A., Mommer, L., Andraczek, K., Iversen, C. M., Bergmann, J., Bruelheide, H., Fan, Y., Freschet, G. T., Guerrero‐Ramírez, N. R., Kattge, J., et al. (2021) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.17590 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
“All rights reserved size (Díaz et al., 2016; but see Westoby, 1998), we did not focus on this trait here because there was no first approximation of a logical belowground analogue.”
BackgroundInfluential
Shifts in trait‐combinations along rainfall and phosphorus gradients
Fonseca, C. R., Overton, J. M., Collins, B., & Westoby, M. (2000) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00506.x · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Self-citation
The intrinsic dimensionality of plant traits and its relevance to community assembly
Laughlin, D. C. (2013) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12187 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
“Westoby (1998) pragmatically proposed to focus attention on plant organs and whole-plant traits, such as specific leaf area (SLA), maximum height and seed mass to operationalize functional comparisons of plants at a global scale.”
Background
Ecophylogenetics: advances and perspectives
Mouquet, N., Devictor, V., Meynard, C. N., Munoz, F., Bersier, L., Chave, J., Couteron, P., Dalecky, A., Fontaine, C., Gravel, D., et al. (2012) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2012.00224.x · Cited by 446 · see citing works
“leaf-heightseed scheme (LHS); (Westoby, 1998)], and some studies have attempted to validate such traits as relevant to characterize species niches descriptors (e.”
Background
Quantifying and interpreting functional diversity of natural communities: practical considerations matter
Lepš, J., de Bello, F., Lavorel, S., & Berman, S. (2006) · HAL · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Species functional redundancy, random extinctions and the stability of ecosystems
Fonseca, C. R., & Ganade, G. (2001) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00528.x · Cited by 443 · see citing works
The impact of agricultural intensification and land-use change on the European arable flora
Storkey, J., Meyer, S., Still, K. S., & Leuschner, C. (2011) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1686 · Cited by 436 · see citing works
Convergence towards higher leaf mass per area in dry and nutrient‐poor habitats has different consequences for leaf life span
Wright, I. J., Westoby, M., & Reich, P. B. (2002) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2002.00689.x · Cited by 435 · see citing works
“…greater potential for fast growth (higher rate of return on a given investment), but longer leaf life span indicating a longer duration of the revenue stream from that investment (Westoby 1998), and enhanced nutrient conservation (Escudero et al. 1992; Eckstein et al. 1999; Aerts & Chapin 2000).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Functional trait space and the latitudinal diversity gradient
Lamanna, C. A., Blonder, B. W., Violle, C., Kraft, N. J. B., Sandel, B., Šímová, I., Donoghue, J. C., Svenning, J., McGill, B. J., Boyle, B. L., et al. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1317722111 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
“We primarily measured hypervolumes for three central traits hypothesized to characterize major axes of ecological strategy variation (25): specific leaf area (SLA), maximum height, and seed mass.”
Method
Meta-analysis in ecology
Gurevitch, J., Curtis, P. S., & Jones, M. H. (2001) · Advances in Ecological Research · doi:10.1016/s0065-2504(01)32013-5 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Plant Functional Types: Are We Getting Any Closer to the Holy Grail?
Lavorel, S., Díaz, S. M., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Garnier, É., Harrison, S. P., McIntyre, S., Pausas, J. G., Harguindeguy, N. P., Roumet, C., & Urcelay, C. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-32730-1_13 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
“35 Westoby M, Falster DS, Moles AT, Vesk PA, Wright IJ (2002) Plant ecological strategies: come leading dimensions of variation between species.”
BackgroundInfluential
Consistency of species ranking based on functional leaf traits
Garnier, É., Laurent, G., Bellmann, A., Debain, S., Berthelier, P., Ducout, B., Roumet, C., & Navas, M. (2001) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.0028-646x.2001.00239.x · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Impact of microplastics on growth, photosynthesis and essential elements in Cucurbita pepo L.
Colzi, I., Renna, L., Bianchi, E., Castellani, M. B., Coppi, A., Pignattelli, S., Loppi, S., & Gonnelli, C. (2021) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127238 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
The Evolutionary Ecology of Sprouting in Woody Plants
Bond, W. J., & Midgley, J. J. (2003) · International Journal of Plant Sciences · doi:10.1086/374191 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
“Sprouting has not been included in general functional type systems such as those of Grime (1979; Grime et al. 1997) or Westoby (1998).”
Background
How fundamental plant functional trait relationships scale‐up to trade‐offs and synergies in ecosystem services
Lavorel, S., & Grigulis, K. (2011) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01914.x · Cited by 396 · see citing works
“…believe that combining the increasing knowledge on associations and trade-offs among plant traits as captured by plant strategy schemes (Grime 1977, Westoby 1998) and trait spectra analyses (Dı́az et al. 2004; Wright et al. 2004; Chave et al. 2009; Freschet et al. 2010a) with the understanding of…”
Background
Leaves at low versus high rainfall: coordination of structure, lifespan and physiology
Wright, I. J., & Westoby, M. (2002) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00479.x · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Self-citation
Hypervolume concepts in niche‐ and trait‐based ecology
Blonder, B. W. (2017) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.03187 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Axes are often chosen to represent strategy axes for the taxa of interest (McGill et al. 2006, Westoby and Wright 2006), e.g. the fast-slow tradeoffs proposed for plants (Grime 1977, Westoby 1998).”
Background
Disturbance response in vegetation – towards a global perspective on functional traits
McIntyre, S., Lavorel, S., Landsberg, J. J., & Forbes, T. D. A. (1999) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.2307/3237077 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Suites of root traits differ between annual and perennial species growing in the field
Roumet, C., Urcelay, C., & Díaz, S. M. (2006) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01667.x · Cited by 381 · see citing works
“A growing body of theoretical (Grime, 1977; Chapin, 1980; Westoby, 1998) and empirical work (Grime et al .”
Background
Fitness of multidimensional phenotypes in dynamic adaptive landscapes
Laughlin, D. C., & Messier, J. (2015) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.06.003 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Life‐history correlates of plant invasiveness at regional and continental scales
Hamilton, M. A., Murray, B. R., Cadotte, M. W., Hose, G. C., Baker, A. C., Harris, C. J., & Licari, D. (2005) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00809.x · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Our analysis focussed on three strategically important lifehistory traits that represent major axes of variation in plant life history, specific leaf area (SLA), plant height, and seed mass (Westoby 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Opposing assembly mechanisms in a Neotropical dry forest: implications for phylogenetic and functional community ecology
Swenson, N. G., & Enquist, B. J. (2009) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/08-1025.1 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Functional traits, convergent evolution, and periodic tables of niches
Winemiller, K., Fitzgerald, D., Bower, L. M., & Pianka, E. (2015) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12462 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
“Westoby (1998) pointed out that strategies within the C-S-R model are conceptual, and consequently plant species are not easily ordinated within the triangle.”
Background
Changing land use and its impact on biodiversity
Poschlod, P., Bakker, J. P., & Kahmen, S. (2005) · Basic and Applied Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.baae.2004.12.001 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
“Other important traits related to competitive ability such as plant height and SLA, reflecting growth rate (Grime, 2001; Grime, 1979; Westoby, 1998) and germination period are also crucial (Kahmen et al.”
BackgroundMethod
A comparison of specific leaf area, chemical composition and leaf construction costs of field plants from 15 habitats differing in productivity
Poorter, H., & JONG, R. D. (1999) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00428.x · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Scaling from Traits to Ecosystems
Enquist, B. J., Norberg, J., Bonser, S. P., Violle, C., Webb, C. T., Henderson, A., Sloat, L., & Savage, V. M. (2015) · Advances in ecological research/Advances in Ecological Research · doi:10.1016/bs.aecr.2015.02.001 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“These traits have also been proposed to capture most functional and life history variation across species (Westoby, 1998; Westoby et al., 2002).”
Background
New approaches for delineating n ‐dimensional hypervolumes
Blonder, B. W., Morrow, C. B., Maitner, B., Harris, D. J., Lamanna, C. A., Violle, C., Enquist, B. J., & Kerkhoff, A. J. (2017) · Methods in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1111/2041-210x.12865 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
“This suite of traits represent major axes in the plant economic spectrum that describe key aspects of plant ecology strategy, including physiology and life history (Westoby, 1998).”
Background
Climatic and soil factors explain the two-dimensional spectrum of global plant trait variation
Joswig, J. S., Wirth, C., Schuman, M. C., Kattge, J., Reu, B., Wright, I. J., Sippel, S., Rüger, N., Richter, R., Schaepman, M. E., et al. (2021) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01616-8 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
“A previous global analysis of six traits observed two main axes of variation: (1) size variation at the organ and plant level and (2) leaf economics balancing leaf persistence against plant growth potential.”
Background
An ecological future for weed science to sustain crop production and the environment. A review
MacLaren, C., Storkey, J., Menegat, A., Metcalfe, H., & Dehnen‐Schmutz, K. (2020) · Agronomy for Sustainable Development · doi:10.1007/s13593-020-00631-6 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
“Life history strategies have evolved in response to disturbance intensity and resource availability (Grime 1977; Westoby 1998; Bohn et al. 2014), both of which are strongly influenced by farm management in agroecosystems (Gaba et al.”
Background
Hierarchical effects of environmental filters on the functional structure of plant communities: a case study in the French Alps
de Bello, F., Lavorel, S., Lavergne, S., Albert, C. H., Boulangeat, I., Mazel, F., & Thuiller, W. (2012) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07438.x · Cited by 345 · see citing works
“These three diversity indices were calculated for each individual trait and also for the leaf–height–seed (LHS) scheme (Westoby 1998).”
BackgroundMethod
Functional trait effects on ecosystem stability: assembling the jigsaw puzzle
de Bello, F., Lavorel, S., Hallett, L. M., Valencia, E., Garnier, É., Roscher, C., Conti, L., Galland, T., Goberna, M., Májeková, M., et al. (2021) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2021.05.001 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
“While in some cases (e.g., nitrogen-ﬁ xing species) their delineation is rather straightforward, assigning species to separate groups is often unfeasible or context-dependent since traits often vary continuously rather than supporting any division into clear-cut groups [72,73].”
High seedling relative growth rate and specific leaf area are traits of invasive species: phylogenetically independent contrasts of woody angiosperms
Grotkopp, E., & Rejmánek, M. (2007) · American Journal of Botany · doi:10.3732/ajb.94.4.526 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
CLO‐PLA: the database of clonal and bud bank traits of Central European flora§
Klimešová, J., & de Bello, F. (2009) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01050.x · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Is leaf dry matter content a better predictor of soil fertility than specific leaf area?
Hodgson, J., Montserrat‐Martí, G., Charles, M., Jones, G., Wilson, P., Shipley, B., Sharafi, M., Cerabolini, B. E. L., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Band, S. R., et al. (2011) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcr225 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
“This view, that SLA was an effective stand-alone predictor of soil fertility and growth rate, was formalized within the LHS plant ecology strategy scheme of Westoby (1998).”
Method
Allocating CSR plant functional types: the use of leaf economics and size traits to classify woody and herbaceous vascular plants
Pierce, S., Brusa, G., Vagge, I., & Cerabolini, B. E. L. (2013) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12095 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“Tilman 1988); and (ii) a simple practical method of application does not exist (Westoby 1998; Westoby et al. 2002).”
The biogeography and filtering of woody plant functional diversity in North and South America
Swenson, N. G., Enquist, B. J., Pither, J., Kerkhoff, A. J., Boyle, B. L., Weiser, M. D., Elser, J. J., Fagan, W. F., Forero‐Montaña, J., Fyllas, N. M., et al. (2011) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2011.00727.x · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Net assimilation rate, specific leaf area and leaf mass ratio: which is most closely correlated with relative growth rate? A meta‐analysis
Shipley, B. (2006) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2006.01135.x · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Leaf traits as indicators of resource‐use strategy in floras with succulent species
Vendramini, F., Díaz, S. M., Gurvich, D. E., Wilson, P. J., Thompson, K., & Hodgson, J. (2002) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00357.x · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“One of the most widely accepted of such key traits is specific leaf area (SLA), the light-catching area deployed per unit of previously photosynthesized dry mass allocated to the purpose (Westoby, 1998).”
Background
Biodiversity and climate determine the functioning of Neotropical forests
Poorter, L., van der Sande, M. T., Arets, E. J. M. M., Ascarrunz, N. L., Enquist, B. J., Finegan, B., Licona, J. C., Martı́nez-Ramos, M., Mazzei, L., Meave, J. A., et al. (2017) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.12668 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
“To facilitate comparison of disparate ecosystems and improve understanding of ecosystem functioning, functional traits have emerged as a promising tool, because they allow for quantitative expression of plant form and function using the same yardstick (Westoby, 1998).”
Method
Leaf structure and anatomy as related to leaf mass per area variation in seedlings of a wide range of woody plant species and types
Castro‐Díez, P., Puyravaud, J., & Cornelissen, J. H. C. (2000) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/pl00008873 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
RELATING PLANT TRAITS AND SPECIES DISTRIBUTIONS ALONG BIOCLIMATIC GRADIENTS FOR 88 LEUCADENDRON TAXA
Thuiller, W., Lavorel, S., Midgley, G. F., Lavergne, S., & Rebelo, T. G. (2004) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/03-0148 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
sPlot – A new tool for global vegetation analyses
Bruelheide, H., Dengler, J., Jiménez‐Alfaro, B., Purschke, O., Hennekens, S. M., Chytrý, M., Pillar, V. D., Jansen, F., Kattge, J., Sandel, B., et al. (2019) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.1111/jvs.12710 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
“We accessed plant trait data from TRY version 3.0 on August 10, 2016, and included 18 traits that describe the leaf, wood and seed economics spectra (Westoby, 1998; Reich, 2014; Table S6.”
MethodInfluential
Habitat filtering and niche differentiation jointly explain species relative abundance within grassland communities along fertility and disturbance gradients
Maire, V., Gross, N., Börger, L., Proulx, R., Wirth, C., Pontes, L. D. S., Soussana, J., & Louault, F. (2012) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04287.x · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Why Functional Traits Do Not Predict Tree Demographic Rates
Yang, J., Cao, M., & Swenson, N. G. (2018) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2018.03.003 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Root tissue structure is linked to ecological strategies of grasses
Wahl, S., & RYSER, P. (2000) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00775.x · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Caatinga Revisited: Ecology and Conservation of an Important Seasonal Dry Forest
Albuquerque, U. P., Araújo, E. D. L., El-Deir, A. C. A., de Lima, A. L. A., Souto, A., Bezerra, B. M., Ferraz, E. M. N., Freire, E. M. X., Sampaio, E. V. D. S. B., Las‐Casas, F. M. G., et al. (2012) · The Scientific World JOURNAL · doi:10.1100/2012/205182 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
“Future phenological studies in the Caatinga should not only focus on the relationships between the timing of phenological occurrences and rainfall, which have been examined numerous times [171, 181], but also investigate the biotic mechanisms responsible for the occurrence of various phenophases and attempt to integra…”
Background
Functional diversity: an overview of its history and applicability
Laureto, L. M. O., Cianciaruso, M. V., & Samia, D. S. M. (2015) · Natureza & Conservação · doi:10.1016/j.ncon.2015.11.001 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Deterministic tropical tree community turnover: evidence from patterns of functional beta diversity along an elevational gradient
Swenson, N. G., Anglada-Cordero, P., & Barone, J. A. (2010) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1369 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Consistency of plant species and trait responses to grazing along a productivity gradient: a multi‐site analysis
Pakeman, R. J. (2004) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.0022-0477.2004.00928.x · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“…is important for vegetation change, as regenerative traits are not generally correlated with vegetative ones (Grime 1979; Grime et al. 1997; Westoby 1998; Lavorel & Garnier 903 Plant species and trait responses to grazing © 2004 British Ecological Society, Journal of Ecology, 92,…”
Background
Seed mass and seed nutrient content as predictors of seed output variation between species
Henery, M. L., & Westoby, M. (2001) · Oikos · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.920309.x · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Self-citation
The assembly of tropical tree communities – the advances and shortcomings of phylogenetic and functional trait analyses
Swenson, N. G. (2013) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.00121.x · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Functional traits and phenotypic plasticity modulate species coexistence across contrasting climatic conditions
Pérez-Ramos, I. M., Matías, L., Gómez‐Aparicio, L., & Godoy, Ó. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10453-0 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Variation in leaf functional trait values within and across individuals and species: an example from a Costa Rican dry forest
Hulshof, C. M., & Swenson, N. G. (2009) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01614.x · Cited by 256 · see citing works
“Further, in global scale data sets the degree of intraspecific variation in plant functional trait values has been shown to be negligible compared with the global variability in species trait values (Diaz & Cabido 1997; Westoby 1998; Cornelissen et al. 2003; Garnier et al. 2004; Wright et al. 2004; Swenson & Enquist 2…”
Background
Plant functional group identity and diversity determine biotic resistance to invasion by an exotic grass
Byun, C., de Blois, S., & Brisson, J. (2012) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12016 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
“These functional traits are relevant to leaf-height-seed plant ecology strategy scheme (Westoby 1998), the common core list of plant traits related to dispersal, establishment, and persistence (Weiher et al. 1999), functional traits related to competitive ability and growth (Funk et al. 2008), and…”
Background
A multi‐trait test of the leaf‐height‐seed plant strategy scheme with 133 species from a pine forest flora
Laughlin, D. C., Leppert, J. J., Moore, M. M., & Sieg, C. H. (2009) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01672.x · Cited by 243 · see citing works
“However, leaf traits, seed mass, and height at maturity appear to be fundamental and integrating properties of species that reflect much of the total variation in plant function, including root function (Westoby 1998; Westoby & Wright 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

© 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 213 A leaf-height-seed (LHS) plant ecology strategy scheme
Westoby, M. (1997)
Self-citation
A multi‐trait test of the leaf‐height‐seed plant strategy scheme with 133 species from a pine forest flora
Laughlin, D. C., Leppert, J. J., Moore, M. M., & Sieg, C. H. (2009) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01672.x · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Clade‐specific differences in leaf-height-seed strategy schemePreprint
Yu, F., Fu, S., Wang, Y., & Yi, X. (2022) · doi:10.22541/au.167033707.76543057/v1
Ecological strategies based on the LHS system (leaf-height-seed) in wood plants along environmental gradients
Laureto, L. M. O. (2012) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
An intraspecific application of the leaf‐height‐seed ecology strategy scheme to forest herbs along a latitudinal gradient
Frenne, P. D., GRAAE, B. J., Kolb, A., Шевцова, А., Baeten, L., Brunet, J., Chabrerie, O., Cousins, S. A. O., Decocq, G., D'hondt, R., et al. (2010) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06399.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works

Authors: Westoby, M.
Affiliations: Macquarie University (AU)
Corresponding author: Westoby, Mark
ORCID: Westoby, Mark
Venue: Plant and Soil
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 1998-02
Volume: 199
Issue: 2
Pages: 213-227
ISSN: 0032-079X (ISSN-L)
1573-5036
DOI: 10.1023/a:1004327224729
OpenAlex: W201316592
Cited by: 1,925
References: 105
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 124 · 2020: 124 · 2019: 129 · 2018: 87 · 2017: 106 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 74 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 60
FWCI: 17.45
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (vor)
Locations: Plant and Soil (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Botany and Plant Ecology Studies
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Plant Water Relations and Carbon Dynamics
Keywords: plant ecological strategies, specific leaf area, seed weight, canopy height, disturbance tolerance, stress tolerance, plant functional traits, plant ecophysiology, global change

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