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STAR FORMATION IN THE CENTRAL 400 PC OF THE MILKY WAY: EVIDENCE FOR A POPULATION OF MASSIVE YOUNG STELLAR OBJECTS
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The central kpc of the Milky Way might be expected to differ significantly from the rest of the Galaxy with regard to gasdynamics and the formation of young stellar objects (YSOs). We probe this possibility with mid-infrared observations obtained with Infrared Array Camera and Multiband Imaging Photometer on Spitzer and with Midcourse Space Experiment . We use color–color diagrams and spectral energy distribution (SED) fits to explore the nature of YSO candidates (including objects with 4.5 μm excesses possibly due to molecular emission). There is an asymmetry in the distribution of the candidate YSOs, which tend to be found at negative Galactic longitudes; this behavior contrasts with that of the molecular gas, approximately 2/3 of which is at positive longitudes. The small-scale height of these objects suggests that they are within the Galactic center region and are dynamically young. They lie between two layers of infrared dark clouds and may have originated from these clouds. We identify new sites for this recent star formation by comparing the mid-IR, radio, submillimeter, and methanol maser data. The methanol masers appear to be associated with young, embedded YSOs characterized by 4.5 μm excesses. We use the SEDs of these sources to estimate their physical characteristics; their masses appear to range from ∼10 to ∼20 M ☉ . Within the central 400 × 50 pc (| l | < 1 3 and | b | < 10') the star formation rate (SFR) based on the identification of Stage I evolutionary phase of YSO candidates is about 0.14 M ☉ yr −1 . Given that the majority of the sources in the population of YSOs are classified as Stage I objects, we suggest that a recent burst of star formation took place within the last 10 5 yr. This suggestion is also consistent with estimates of SFRs within the last ∼10 7 yr showing a peak around 10 5 yr ago. Lastly, we find that the Schmidt–Kennicutt Law applies well in the central 400 pc of the Galaxy. This implies that star formation does not appear to be dramatically affected by the extreme physical conditions in the Galactic center region.
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“Integrated IR emission of star-forming regions (resolved or unresolved) in the CMZ indicates an SFR of ∼ 0 . 1 M ⊙ yr -1 (YusefZadeh et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2017).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Yusef-Zadeh et al. 2009
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“(Yusef-Zadeh et al. 2009) counted the number of YSOs within | l | , | b | < 1 . 3 ◦ , 0 . 17 ◦ and estimated that the current SFR is ≃ 0 . 15 M ⊙ yr -1 for the last ∼ 0 . 1 Myr.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Yusef-Zadeh et al. 2009
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Sofue, Y. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2389 · Cited by 6
Introducing the Rhea simulations of Milky Way-like galaxies
Göller, J., Girichidis, P., Brucy, N., Hunter, G. H., Kjellgren, K. I., Treß, R. G., Klessen, R. S., Glover, S. C. O., Hennebelle, P., Molinari, S., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452223 · Cited by 4
Star Formation in the Galactic Center
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Properties of dust at the Galactic center probed by AKARI far-infrared spectral mapping
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Towards a multi-scale understanding of the gas-star formation cycle in the Central Molecular Zone
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Origin of the low-temperature plasma in the Galactic center X-ray emission
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Deguchi, S., Tafoya, D., & Shino, N. (2012) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/pasj/64.2.28 · Cited by 4
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Detecting hot stars in the Galactic centre with combined near- and mid-infrared photometry
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The Galactic Center Black Hole Laboratory
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Properties of dust at the Galactic center probed by AKARI far-infrared spectral mapping
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The X-ray variation of M81* resolved by Chandra and NuSTAR
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Star Formation in the Central Molecular Zone of the Milky Way
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An infrared high resolution silicon immersion grating spectrometer for airborne and space missions
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Metadata
- Authors
- Yusef-Zadeh, F., Hewitt, J. W., Arendt, R. G., Whitney, B., Rieke, G., Wardle, M., Hinz, J. L., Stolovy, S., Lang, C. C., Burton, M. G., & Ramirez, S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- Space Science Institute (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Macquarie University (AU)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2009-08-10
- Volume
- 702
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 178-225
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W1796926725
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 129
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 6.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- star formation, Galactic Center, young stellar objects, massive young stellar objects, infrared dark clouds, methanol masers, star formation rate, Schmidt-Kennicutt law, mid-infrared excess, molecular gas distribution, star formation history, embedded star formation
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